Viscoelastic-Surfactant Treatment Fluids Having Oxidizer

ABSTRACT

A method and reactive treatment fluid for treating a wellbore for filter cake removal, including providing the reactive treatment fluid having a viscoelastic surfactant (VES) into a wellbore in a subterranean formation and attacking the filter cake via the reactive treatment fluid.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICAITONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 63/062,333, filed on Aug. 6, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/955,717, filed on Dec. 31, 2019, the entire contents of both which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This disclosure relates to treating a wellbore.

BACKGROUND

Drilling fluid aides the drilling of holes into a subterranean formation in the Earth's crust. The holes may be labeled as a borehole or a wellbore. The drilling fluid may be called drilling mud. The hole may be drilled for the exploration or production of crude oil and natural gas. The hole may be drilled for other applications, such as a water well. During the drilling, the drilling fluid may cool and lubricate the drill bit and also carry and remove rock cuttings from the hole. The drilling fluid may provide hydrostatic pressure to prevent or reduce formation fluids from the subterranean formation entering into the hole during drilling. Drilling fluids (or treatment fluids more generally) can include completion fluids, workover fluids, drill-in fluids, and so on.

Drilling fluids may be mixtures of solid additives present as discontinuous phases spread in a liquid continuous phase. The liquid could be water in the case of the water-based drilling fluids (WBDF) or oil for the oil-based drilling fluids (OBDF). As indicated, the drilling fluids may be designed to achieve different operational objectives including lubrication of the drill bit and drill string, transferring the drilled cuttings out of the hole while drilling, and suspending cuttings when the fluid circulation is stopped. Another objective may be to prevent the formation fluids from invading the wellbore hole. In the drilling operation with the drilling fluid, wellbore stability may be promoted by forming a low-permeability film on the borehole wall labeled as filter cake (also called cake, mudcake, or wall cake). The filter cake may also reduce drilling fluid invasion into the drilled formation.

SUMMARY

An aspect relates to a method of treating a wellbore for filter cake removal, including providing a reactive treatment fluid having a viscoelastic surfactant (VES) into a wellbore in a subterranean formation to attack filter cake in the wellbore, and attacking the filter cake via the reactive treatment fluid. As used herein, the filter cake “removal” can include permeability enhancement of the filter cake.

An aspect relates to a reactive treatment fluid for removing filter cake from a wellbore in a subterranean formation. The reactive treatment fluid includes a reactive breaker including an oxidizing salt to break polymer in the filter cake. The reactive treatment fluid includes VES to gel the reactive treatment fluid to give the reactive treatment fluid as a VES gel (e.g., for retention of the oxidizing salt for breaking the polymer in the filter cake at an end portion of a lateral of the wellbore). The reactive treatment fluid includes an acid-generating material to form acid via heat from the subterranean formation or pH trigger to attack weighting agent from drilling fluid in the filter cake, wherein the acid lowers viscosity of the VES gel.

The details of one or more implementations are set forth in description and in the accompanying drawings. Other features and advantages will be apparent from the description, drawings, and the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a well including a wellbore formed in a geological formation (subterranean formation) having organic matter, such as kerogen.

FIG. 2 a diagram of the well of FIG. 1 after a hydraulic fracture is formed and with the well in production.

FIG. 3 is a diagram of micellization in which surfactant molecules in aqueous solution form into a colloidal structure that is a surfactant micelle.

FIG. 4 is a diagram of micelle shapes (types).

FIG. 5 is a diagram of exemplary chemical structures of zwitterionic surfactants that may be a surfactant in the reactive viscoelastic surfactant (VES)-based fluid.

FIG. 6 is a diagram of exemplary chemical structures of cationic surfactants that may be a surfactant in the reactive VES-based fluid.

FIG. 7 is a diagram of exemplary chemical structures of anionic surfactants that may be a surfactant in the reactive VES-based fluid.

FIG. 8 is a diagram of exemplary chemical structures of nonionic surfactants that may be a surfactant in the reactive VES-based fluid.

FIG. 9 is a diagram of a well system having a wellbore formed through the Earth surface into a geological formation in the Earth crust.

FIG. 10 is a method of hydraulic fracturing a geological formation having organic material.

FIG. 11 is Table 1 giving solution parameters for the three VES fluid samples prepared for viscosity measurement in Example 1.

FIG. 12 is a plot of viscosity and temperature over time for the three VES fluid samples in Example 1.

FIG. 13 is Table 2 giving solution parameters for the three VES fluids prepared with the polymer additive FP9515SH for viscosity measurement in Example 2.

FIG. 14 is a plot of viscosity and temperature over time for the three VES fluid samples in Example 2.

FIG. 15 is a diagram of a well having a filter cake.

FIG. 16 is a sequence schematic of particle buildup of filter cake on the surface of the face of the subterranean formation in a wellbore.

FIG. 17 is a diagram of a well having a wellbore formed through the Earth surface into a subterranean formation.

FIG. 18 is an image of two filter cakes associated with Example 3.

FIG. 19 is a plot of the filtrate versus time for Example 4.

FIG. 20 is a plot of viscosity over time for Example 5.

FIG. 21 is a plot of viscosity over time for the five fluids given in Table 3 for Example 6.

FIG. 22 is a plot of viscosity over time for the five fluids given in Table 4 for Example 9.

FIG. 23 is a plot of volume of the filtrate collected as the four filter cakes were deposited versus time in Example 10.

FIG. 24 is a plot of volume of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cakes versus time given in time in Example 10.

FIG. 25 is a plot of volume of the filtrate collected as the filter cakes were deposited versus time in Example 11.

FIG. 26 is a plot of volume of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cakes versus time in Example 11.

FIG. 27 is a plot of volume of the filtrate collected as the filter cakes were deposited versus time in Example 12.

FIG. 28 is a plot of volume of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cakes versus time in Example 12.

FIG. 29 is a plot of volume of the filtrate collected as the filter cakes were deposited versus time in Example 13.

FIG. 30 is a plot of volume of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cakes versus time in Example 13.

FIG. 31 is a plot of induction time versus concentration of LiBr with NH₄Cl and NaBrO₃ for Example 14.

FIG. 32 is a plot of induction time versus concentration of LiCl with NH₄Cl and NaBrO₃ for Example 14.

FIG. 33 is a plot of induction time versus concentration of LiBr with NH₄MS and NaBrO₃ for Example 14.

FIG. 34 is a plot of induction time versus concentration of LiCl with NH₄MS and NaBrO₃ for Example 14.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Some aspects of the present disclosure are directed to treatment fluids or hydraulic fracturing fluids that are viscoelastic surfactant-based and bear an oxidizing component(s) (oxidizer). The treatment fluid or hydraulic fracturing fluid includes a viscoelastic surfactant (VES) that forms micelles to increase viscosity of the treatment fluid or hydraulic fracturing fluid as a VES-based fluid. The increase in viscosity may be beneficial for conveying of proppant by the VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid.

A first salt may be added to the VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid to drive formation of the micelles. The first salt may be, for example, a monovalent or divalent salt. The first salt may also alter the induction time leading up to acid formation under certain conditions. A second salt (for example, an inorganic oxidizer salt) may be added as an oxidizing component of the VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid to give a reactive VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid. This second salt as an oxidizer may provide for attack of organic material (for example, kerogen) in the geological formation treated by the reactive VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid. The second salt may also further promote formation of micelles in the VES-based hydraulic-fracturing fluid. Both the first salt (monovalent or divalent) and the second salt (oxidizer) are inert to oxidation.

In certain embodiments, the first salt (monovalent or divalent salt) is not added to the reactive VES-based hydraulic-fracturing fluid. Instead, the second salt (oxidizer) provides for the formation of the micelles. In some embodiments, a polymer may be optionally added to reactive VES-based hydraulic-fracturing fluid to enhance the increase in viscosity. In implementations, the second salt (and first salt if included) may act as a breaker of the viscosity of the reactive VES-based hydraulic-fracturing fluid with or without a polymer loading.

In some applications, the VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials (for example, oxidizer salt) may be pumped as a stand-alone hydraulic fracturing treatment to fracture the geological formation and transport proppant. The VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials and proppant may be pumped alternatively with VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials and no proppant as a hybrid treatment. The VES-based fracturing fluid may be pumped as part of a channel fracturing operation. Channel fracturing may refer to hydraulic fracturing treatment employing intermittent pumping of proppant-laden fluid and proppant-free fluid to generate conductive channels within the formation.

In other embodiments, the VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials is pumped alternatively with carbon dioxide (CO₂)-based fluids that optionally contain oxidizers for breaking down kerogen. A benefit may be that CO₂ slugs can enhance the delivery of oxidizer to the kerogen and better expel hydrocarbons from the geological formation. If employed, the CO₂-based fluid with oxidizer may contain organic oxidizers, reactive gases, or in-situ forming halogens, or any combinations of these. The CO₂-based fluid with oxidizer may be foamed in some instances.

The VES-based hydraulic-fracturing fluid may be pre-mixed, for example, in a batch mix vessel and then pumped downhole through a wellbore in a geological formation for the hydraulic fracturing of the geological formation. The amount of components (for example, surfactant or oxidizer salt) added to the mix vessel (for example, a batch mix vessel (may be adjusted in response to the hydraulic-fracturing conditions and the amount of kerogen or other organic matter in the subterranean region of the geological formation being treated. In certain embodiments, at least some of the surfactant or oxidizer salt is added to a conduit on the discharge of the pump conveying the VES-based hydraulic-fracturing fluid. The amount of the oxidizer salt added to the conduit (or to the mix vessel) may be adjusted (for example, in real time) in response to the hydraulic-fracturing conditions and the amount of kerogen or other organic matter in the fractures of the geological formation.

It should be understood that the phrase “VES fluid” as utilized in the present disclosure generally refers to a “VES-based fluid” in that the fluid contains more than a VES. Similarly, the phrase “VES hydraulic fracturing fluid” generally refers to a VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid” in that the hydraulic fracturing fluid contains more than a VES. Further, a VES-based fluid having the VES may include water as a base fluid.

While the present discussion initially may at times focus on the VES-based fluid as a VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid, the present VES-based fluid may also be a VES-based treatment fluid for treatments other than hydraulic fracturing. The other treatments may be independent (or separate) from hydraulic fracturing or in combination with hydraulic fracturing. Implementations of treatments with the VES-based treatment fluid include: (1) degradation of filter cake during openhole drilling or during hydraulic fracturing; (2) upgrading oil in the subterranean formation (geological formation) by reducing the viscosity and boiling point of the oil; (3) breaking organic matter (for example, paraffin, bitumen, or oil) in the subterranean formation by reducing the viscosity of the organic matter; and (4) oxidizing organic scale (buildup) in a subterranean formation to remove (clean-up) the organic scale to promote subsequent fluid injection into the subterranean formation for the wellbore employed in an injection well.

Production from unconventional source-rock formations has become economically viable. The technology for accessing these reservoirs continues to advance as the industry improves drilling, completion, and stimulation techniques. Unconventional source-rock reservoirs differ from conventional reservoirs at least due to the presence of the hydrocarbon source material, such as kerogen and kerogen-produced components, in unconventional source-rock reservoirs. This hydrocarbon source material as irregular organic matter can represent 5-10 weight percent (wt %) [or 10-20 volume percent (vol %)] of the sedimentary source-rock formation. An assortment of minerals are woven and compacted together with the organic matter (for example, kerogen) resulting in a complex hierarchical structure with toughness and strength characteristics similar to other natural materials. The tensile characteristics of the organic matter have been demonstrated by nanoindentation of organic-rich shale micro/nano-cantilever source-shale beams tested under a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The chemomechanical characteristics of the organic matter implicate a problematic role of the organic matter in the tensile stresses in hydraulic fracturing and in overall mechanical and chemical operational success of the fracturing. The interwoven organic matter that the fracturing fluid encounters as the fracture extends into the source rock formation is further discussed with respect to FIG. 1.

FIG. 1 is well 100 having a wellbore 102 formed in a geological formation 104 having organic matter 106 (organic material), such as kerogen. The wellbore 102 is depicted as a circular cross section. The geological formation 104 is a subterranean formation in the Earth's crust and may be an unconventional source-rock formation having hydrocarbon. The geological formation 104 may be an organic-rich shale zone. The spider-web symbol represents the presence of the organic matter 106.

In FIG. 1, a fracture 108 is being formed via injection of a fracturing fluid 110 (stimulation fluid) from the Earth's surface through the wellbore 102 into the geological formation 104. The fracturing fluid 110 may be injected at a specified flow rate (q₀). The flow rate (q₀) may be specified as a volumetric flow rate or mass flow rate. The fracturing fluid 110 may include proppant 112, such as sand or ceramic proppant. The fracture 108 may propagate perpendicular to a minimum principal stress 114 of the formation 104 and in a direction against a maximum principal stress 116 of the formation.

The schematic in FIG. 1 depicts the hydraulic fracture 108 extending from the wellbore 102. The fracturing fluid 110 system encounters the ductile organic matter 106 illustrated as spider webs. The presence of the organic matter 106 at the fracture face 118 may restrict the generation of permeable channels from the geological formation 104 into the fracture 108. Thus, the organic matter 106 may inhibit the subsequent production of hydrocarbon from the formation 104 into and through the fracture 108 to the wellbore 102 and Earth surface. The fracture face 118 may be an interface of the forming fracture 108 with the geological formation 104. Conventional hydraulic-fracturing stimulation fluids typically do not address challenges of fracturing organic-rich shale zones. The polymer-like organic material 106 may be intertwined within the organic material and with the rock. The organic material 106 affects fracturing (fracture) behavior and reduces resulting hydraulic conductivity.

Hydraulic fracturing fluids may include polymers or crosslinkers for viscosifying the fracturing fluids as proppant-carrying fluids. Developments in fracturing fluids (or stimulation fluid chemicals) have also included additives, such as polymer breakers, biocides, clay swelling inhibitors, and scale inhibitors. VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluids may be a cleaner alternative to polymer-based systems.

Among the most commonly-used fracturing fluids for unconventional formations are slickwater systems incorporating friction-reducing synthetic polymer that facilitates the pumping of stimulation fluids at large rates (for example, at least 100 barrels per minute). Moreover, the incorporation of gas into fracturing fluids may reduce water as a component of the fracturing fluid.

To address the challenge of improving hydraulic fracturing in unconventional source-rock reservoirs, embodiments of the present techniques include reactive fluids that can break down the polymer nature of the organic matter 106 on the hydraulic fracture faces 118. At the fracture face 118, organic matter 106 (for example, kerogen) is beneficially cracked open due to exposure to oxidizing conditions (for example, aqueous oxidizing conditions). Techniques to implement the oxidizing conditions via a fracturing fluid 110 include, for example: (1) inorganic oxidizers in aqueous fluids, (2) inorganic and organic oxidizers in carbon dioxide (CO₂), (3) inorganic or organic oxidizers in foamed mixtures of water and CO₂, and (4) reactive gases in CO₂.

FIG. 2 is a well 200 that is the well 100 of FIG. 1 after the hydraulic fracture 108 is formed and with the well 200 in production. FIG. 2 depicts the hydraulic fracture 108 extending from the wellbore 102. The fracture 108 has a length 202 and width 204. The fracturing fluid 110 (FIG. 1) that formed the fracture 108 was a VES fracturing fluid having an oxidizer that attacked the organic matter 106. Thus, the fracturing fluid 110 system caused organic matter 106 to crack open to generate permeable channels from the formation 104 into the fracture 108 and therefore provide for conductivity from the formation 104 through the fracture 108 to the wellbore 102. The well 200 as depicted is in production phase with produced hydrocarbon 206 flow from the geological formation 104 through the fracture 108 and wellbore 102 to the Earth surface. The flow rate of the produced hydrocarbon 206 may be labeled as Q₀ and may be a characterized as a volumetric flow rate or mass flow rate.

As discussed, VES-based systems may be combined with reactive fluid components for breaking down organic matter 106, such as kerogen, in the geological formation 104. This fracturing-fluid system may also be utilized to upgrade heavy oil or clean-up organic residues.

VES-based fluids generally differ from conventional polymer-based fracturing fluid systems. Polymer-based fracturing fluids typically incorporate a water-soluble polymer, crosslinker, and breaker. A viscous polymer-based fluid (for example, a gel at greater than 10 centipoise [cP]) is pumped into a geological formation and with the fluid gel transporting proppant into a fracture network. Then, the gel is broken by enzyme or oxidizer and the fluid flowed back from the formation to the surface. This process may be operationally complex in relying on polymer hydration and a variety of additives, such as biocides, crosslinkers, and breakers. By contrast, viscoelastic surfactants may be simpler to utilize in the field because typically there is no hydration step and because fewer additives may be included. For example, in the case of breakers, VES-based fluids can break in the formation by changes in brine concentration due to contact with produced fluids or alternatively by contact with hydrocarbons which disrupt the surfactant micelles of the VES-based fluid.

An advantage of VES-based fluids over polymer-based systems can be that VES-based fluids may typically be solids-free (except for any proppant). Therefore, in implementations, the VES-based fluids generally do not deposit residue in the geological formation or on the proppant pack. Thus, VES-based fluids may be more efficient than polymer-based systems in hydraulic-fracture reservoir stimulation because the conductivity of the in-place proppant pack affects well productivity.

In addition, VES-based fluids may heal after exposure to shear. Additives may further improve the shear re-healing time of the VES-based fluid gel. A benefit of healing may be that viscosity is maintained for conveying proppant. The self-healing may restore the micelles and hence the viscosity. The VES fluid experiences shear forces during pumping at the wellhead. The viscosity may be restored as the VES fluid goes into the wellbore and formation and thus perform hydraulic fracturing and convey proppant. Crosslinked polymer fluids, by contrast, can be irreversibly damaged during pumping because the shear forces cause some of the covalent bonds to break. The micelles of the VES fluid are not covalently held together and their formation is reversible. This may be an advantage of VES over crosslinked polymer for hydraulic fracturing.

Embodiments employ VES gels to hydraulically fracture unconventional source-rock formations. These gels may contain a specified amount of oxidizer that can break down organic material (for example, kerogen) in the subterranean formation. Thus, embodiments may combine the benefits of viscoelastic surfactants as fracturing fluids with the reactive capabilities of an oxidizer component to break down kerogen on the surface of the fractures. The reactive VES fluid may also be utilized to upgrade heavy oil (for example, bitumen or including bitumen) by breaking down the heavy oil and reducing viscosity of the heavy oil. Heavy oil may be crude oil having an American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity less than 20°. The reactive VES fluid may also be utilized to clean downhole by removing organic residues from the surface of the rock formation deposited as a result of drilling, completion, and fracturing. The reactive VES fluid may dissolve filter cake in open-hole completions (both water injectors and hydrocarbon producers).

A purpose of the viscoelastic surfactant (for example, cationic, anionic, nonionic, zwitterionic or amphoteric, or a combination of cationic and anionic surfactants) is to form micelles to increase viscosity of the fluid to give the VES-based fluid. Cylindrical (truncated) or wormlike micelles give greater fluid viscosity than spherical micelles. Spherical micelles generally do not produce viscosity. Truncated cylindrical micelles may make worm-like or rod-like micelles that entangle to give viscosity. VES-based systems may include a surfactant capable of forming a wormlike micelle that can entangle and thus impart viscosity to the fluid. The fluid system typically includes salt to drive formation of the micelles, such as worm-like micelles that entangle. VES-based fluids may also contain a breaker to disrupt the micelles and reduce the viscosity while in the formation to enhance flowback.

Surfactant selection may be an aspect of formulating a VES-based fracturing fluid. Under certain conditions, surfactant molecules arrange into colloidal structures called micelles as indicated earlier. With these structures, the hydrocarbon tails of the surfactants orient toward each other while the polar head groups form an interface with the surrounding aqueous media.

FIG. 3 depicts micellization 300 in which surfactant molecules 302 in aqueous solution form into a colloidal structure that is a surfactant micelle 306. The surfactant molecules 302 are a hydrocarbon chain having a polar head group 308 and a hydrocarbon tail 310. Surfactant micelles 306 form 304 spontaneously in aqueous solution when the surfactant concentration, c, exceeds the threshold referred to as the critical micelle concentration (cmc). The size and structure of the micelles 306 may be controlled by the selected charge and geometry of the surfactant molecules 302. The size and structure of the micelles 306 may be controlled by solution conditions, such as concentration of the surfactant molecules, type and concentration of salt, temperature, ionic strength, and shear rate.

FIG. 4 gives examples 400 of micelle shapes (types). Depicted are a spherical micelle 402, a cylindrical (worm-like) micelle 404, a vesicles (bilayer) micelle 406, and a lamellar micelle 408. For each micelle type, the respective qualitative prediction of shape may be based on the packing parameter.

The molecular packing parameter may provide for insight into the self-assembly phenomenon of the surfactant micelle as an aggregate. The molecular packing parameter is defined as v_(o)/aI_(o), where v_(o) and I_(o) are the volume and the length of the surfactant tail and a is the surface area of the hydrophobic core of the aggregate expressed per molecule in the aggregate (here referred to as the area per molecule). For instance, for a spherical micelle with a core radius R, made up of g molecules, the volume of the core V=gv_(o)=4πR³/3 and the surface area of the core A=ga=4πR². Hence, R=3v_(o)/a from simple geometrical relations. If the micelle core is packed with surfactant tails without empty space, then the radius R cannot exceed the extended length I_(o) of the tail. Introducing this constraint in the expression for R gives 0≤v_(o)/aI_(o)≤⅓, for spherical micelles.

For spherical, cylindrical, or bilayer aggregates made up of g surfactant molecules, the geometrical relations for the volume V and the surface area A are given in Table 1. The variables V, A, and g in the table refer to the entire spherical aggregate, unit length of a cylindrical aggregate, or unit area of a bilayer aggregate, respectively, for the three shapes. These geometrical relations together with the constraint that at least one dimension of the aggregate (the radius of the sphere or the cylinder, or the half-bilayer thickness, all denoted by R) cannot exceed I_(o) lead to the following connection between the molecular packing parameter and the aggregate shape: 0≤v_(o)/aI_(o)≤⅓ for sphere, ⅓≤v_(o)/aI_(o)≤½ for cylinder, and ½≤v_(o)/aI_(o)≤1 for bilayer. Therefore, if the molecular packing parameter is known, the shape and size of the equilibrium aggregate can be readily identified. This is the predictive sense of the molecular packing parameter.

TABLE 1 Geometrical Relations for Spherical, Cylindrical, and Bilayer Aggregates Variable Sphere Cylinder Bilayer volume of core V = gv_(o) 4πR³/3 πR² 2R surface area of core A = ga 4πR² 2πR 2 area per molecule a 3v_(o)/R 2v_(o)/R v_(o)/R packing parameter v_(o)/a/_(o) v_(o)/a/_(o) ≤ ⅓ v_(o)/a/_(o) ≤ 1/2 v_(o)/a/_(o) ≤ 1 largest aggregation number g_(max) 4π/_(o) ³/3v_(o) π/_(o) ²/v_(o) 2/_(o)/v_(o) aggregation number g g_(max) (3v_(o)/a/_(o))³ g_(max) (2v_(o)/a/_(o))² g_(max)(v_(o)/a/_(o))

Variables V, A, g, and g_(max) refer to the entire spherical aggregate, unit length of a cylinder or unit area of a bilayer. R is the radius of spherical or cylindrical micelle or the half-bilayer thickness of the spherical vesicle. v_(o) and I_(o) are the volume and extended length of the surfactant tail. The variable g_(max) is the largest aggregation number possible for the given geometry based on the constraint that the aggregate core is filled and the tail cannot stretch beyond its extended length.

Changes to the surfactant molecule or solution conditions influence the micelle structure. Surfactant molecules with polar head groups that are large (for example, greater than 8 carbons) may promote the formation of spherical micelles. Surfactant molecules with polar head groups that are small (for example, less than 8 carbons) should encourage lamellae formation. For instance, nonionic surfactants with small ethylene-oxide head groups (small number of carbons, m<8) should favor bilayer and lamellae structures. However, nonionic surfactants with larger head groups (for example, m=10, 12, 14, or 16) may yield cylindrical or wormlike micelles. Further, salt addition to ionic surfactant solutions generally causes a transition from spherical to cylindrical micelles. For example, the cationic surfactant hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (also referred to as cetyltrimethylammonium bromide or CTAB) forms spherical micelles in aqueous solution. Upon addition of sodium nitrate (NaNO₃) to the surfactant solution, the spherical micelles transform into wormlike micelles.

In addition to surfactant selection, formulation of the present VES-based fracturing fluid may further include salt selection, oxidizer selection, and selection of any polymer loading. The salts utilized may interact electrostatically with the polar head groups and thereby reduce head group repulsion. This may cause a structural change to the micelle to ideally form wormlike micelles that can entangle with one another and cause the viscosity of the VES-based fracturing fluid to increase. A wide range of salts are capable of interacting in this manner. These salts can include monovalent or divalent salts. Salts that that are inert to oxidation may be desired.

As for oxidizer selection, the oxidizers employed in this application should demonstrate reactivity toward kerogen. To this end, salts of chlorate and bromate are examples. Both are reactive toward kerogen. Further, both alkali and alkaline earth metal salts are suitable. The oxidizers employed should be nonreactive towards the surfactant molecules in the fracturing fluid at ambient and reservoir temperatures for the time period of pumping so that the fluid can maintain viscosity throughout the pumping time. Alternatively, oxidizers may be selected that are instead (or also) reactive towards heavy oil or organic residues in the formation so that this reactive VES fluid could be utilized for upgrading oil or well cleanup.

With respect to polymer loading, polymers are commonly used in hydraulic fracturing fluids to create viscosity. However, such polymers are known to damage the formation. A traditional VES fluid is advantageous in its lack of polymer additives. This makes VES fluids less damaging to the formation. However, in present embodiments, the oxidizing salt in the reactive VES fluid gives the fluid the capacity to “break” including to break polymers in the VES fluid. Thus, in certain implementations, polymer can be added to the reactive VES fluid to boost viscosity of the VES fluid and increase efficacy of the fracturing operation without inflicting damage to the formation. The polymer added may include, for example, acrylamide acrylic acidic copolymer, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyethylene oxides, and natural polymers. The acrylamide acrylic acidic copolymer may be 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (AMPS). Natural polymers added may include guar, xanthan gum, and cellulose.

Embodiments of the reactive VES-based fluid for hydraulic fracturing include water and surfactant to form the VES-based fluid. The majority (>90 volume %) of the fluid is water. The amount of VES used for the fluid can range 4-8 volume % depending on the temperature and viscosity requirement. The hydraulic fracturing fluid as a reactive VES-based fluid includes an inorganic oxidizer salt. The inorganic oxidizer salt is included as an oxidizer or reactive component for the reactive VES-based fluid to attack organic matter in the subterranean formation. The inorganic oxidizer salt may also promote micelle formation for increased viscosity of the reactive VES fluid. The VES-based fluid may additionally include a monovalent or divalent salt that promotes micelle formation and is generally not an oxidizer. The monovalent or divalent salt may additionally alter the induction time prior to acid formation. The reactive VES-based fluid may include organic compounds, such as phthalic acid, salicylic acid, or their salts. Other fluid additives in the reactive VES-based fluid may include a breaker, corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibitor, biocide, or pH buffer, or any combinations of these. The reactive VES-based fluid may include inorganic oxidizer salt as the sole salt to promote micelle formation and not include the monovalent salt or divalent salt.

The reactive VES-based fluid (hydraulic fracturing fluid) may have a concentration of the surfactant, for example, in a range of 0.1 weight percent (wt %) to 10 wt % or in a range of 0.5 wt % to 7 wt %, or at least 1 wt %. The surfactant may be, for example, a zwitterionic or amphoteric surfactant, a cationic surfactant, an anionic surfactant, a nonionic surfactant, or a combination of cationic and anionic surfactants.

The zwitterionic surfactant may be a betaine, phosphobetaine, or sultaines. The zwitterionic surfactant may include dihydroxyl alkyl glycinate, alkyl ampho acetate or propionate, alkyl amidoamine oxide, gemini VES, alkyl betaine, alkyl amidopropyl betaine, and alkylimino mono- or di-propionates derived from waxes, fats, or oils.

FIG. 5 depicts exemplary structures 500 of a zwitterionic surfactant that may be the surfactant in the reactive VES-based fluid. These structures 500 include disodium tallowiminodipropionate 502, disodium oleamidopropyl betaine 504, and erucylamidopropyl betaine 506. For the tallowiminodipropionate 502, R=tallow.

FIG. 6 depicts specific structures 600 of a cationic surfactant that may be the surfactant in the reactive VES-based fluid. These exemplary structures 600 for the cationic surfactant are alkylammonium salts and include oleyl methyl bis(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium chloride 602, erucyl bis(2-hydroxylethyl)methylammonium chloride 604, and N,N,N, trimethyl-1-octadecammonium chloride 604. Other alkylammonium salts as the cationic surfactant may include, for example, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) or dimethylene-1,2-bis(dodecyldimethylammonium bromide). The cationic surfactant can be associated with inorganic anions, such as sulfate, nitrate, and halide. The cationic surfactant can be associated with organic anions, such as salicylate, functionalized sulfonates, chlorobenzoates, phenates, picolinates, and acetates. The cationic surfactant can alternatively be associated with an oxidizing anion, such as chlorate, bromate, perchlorate, chlorite, hypochlorite, persulfate, iodate, bromite, hypobromite, perborate, dichromate, permanganate, ferrate, percarbonate, nitrite, and nitrate.

Anionic surfactants for the reactive VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid may include alkyl sarcosinates or sulfonates. FIG. 7 gives exemplary structures 700 of anionic surfactants that may be the surfactant in the VES hydraulic fracturing fluid. Oleoyl sarcosine 702 is an example of an alkyl sarcosinate. In implementations, the oleoyl sarcosine 702 may constitute about 94% of the sarcosinate product that is the surfactant. Methyl ester sulfonate 704 and sodium xylene sulfonate 704 are examples of sulfonates. For the methyl ester sulfonate 704 structure, R is an alkyl chain with 10-30 carbon atoms,

Nonionic surfactants for the reactive VES-based hydraulic fracturing fluid may include amine oxides. Referring to FIG. 8, he amine oxide gelling agents have the structure 800 where R is an alkyl or alkylamido group averaging from about 8 to 27 carbon atoms and each R′ is independently H, or an alkyl group averaging from about 1 to 6 carbon atoms. In implementations, R is an alkyl or alkylamido group averaging from about 8 to 16 carbon atoms and R′ are independently alkyl groups averaging from about 2 to 3 carbon atoms. In a particular implementation, the amino oxide gelling agent is tallow amido propylamine oxide (TAPAO). Major components of the tallow amido substituent are palmitic acid 802, stearic acid 804, and oleic acid 806.

The reactive VES hydraulic fracturing fluid may include monovalent or divalent salts at a concentration in a range of 0 wt % to 50 wt %, in a range of 1 wt % to 50 wt %, in a range of 0 wt % to 15 wt %, in a range of 1 wt % to 15 wt %, or less than 15 wt %. These salts may promote micelle formation, such as wormlike or cylindrical micelles, to increase viscosity of the fracturing fluid. These monovalent or divalent salts may include lithium fluoride (LiF), sodium fluoride (NaF), potassium fluoride (KF), magnesium fluoride (MgF₂), calcium fluoride (CaF₂), strontium fluoride (SrF₂), barium fluoride (BaF₂), lithium chloride (LiCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl₂), calcium chloride (CaCl₂), strontium chloride (SrCl₂), barium chloride (BaCl₂), lithium bromide (LiBr), sodium bromide (NaBr), potassium bromide (KBr), magnesium bromide (MgBr₂), calcium bromide (CaBr₂), strontium bromide (SrBr₂), and barium bromide (BaBr₂). Certain salts, such as LiBr salts, may be particularly beneficial for delaying the oxidation of ammonium by bromate and, hence, delaying the formation of acid. This may useful for filter cake cleanup where it is desirable to place the VES-based fluid before it starts to react with the filter cake.

The reactive VES hydraulic fracturing fluid includes inorganic oxidizer salts in concentrations in a range of 1 wt % to 20 wt % or in a range of 1 wt % to 10 wt %. The concentration may generally be more including at the greater end of these ranges or greater (for example, 3 wt % to 20 wt % or 5 wt % to 25 wt %) for implementations where other salt (for example, a monovalent or divalent salt) is not included in the formulation for micelle formation. These inorganic oxidizer salts are an oxidizer or reactive component for the VES hydraulic fracturing fluid to attack and degrade organic material in the geological formation. The inorganic oxidizer salts are generally inert to oxidation. The oxidizer salts may include lithium chlorate (LiClO₃), sodium chlorate (NaClO₃), potassium chlorate (KClO₃), magnesium chlorate [Mg(ClO₃)₂], calcium chlorate [Ca(ClO₃)₂], strontium chlorate [Sr(ClO₃)₂], barium chlorate [Ba(ClO₃)₂], lithium bromate (LiBrO₃), sodium bromate (NaBrO₃), potassium bromate (KBrO₃), magnesium bromate [Mg(BrO₃)₂], calcium bromate [Ca(BrO₃)₂], strontium bromate [Sr(BrO₃)₂], and barium bromate [Ba(BrO₃)₂]. Other oxidizers may include magnesium peroxide, calcium peroxide, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sodium persulfate, potassium persulfate, sodium tetraborate, sodium percarbonate, sodium hypochlorite, an iodate salt, a periodate salt, a dichromate salt, a chlorite salt, a hypochlorite salt, and a permanganate salt. The iodate salt may be a salt of IO₃ ⁻ with lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc. Hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizer may also be used.

The inorganic oxidizer salts may promote formation of micelles, such as cylindrical or worm-like micelles, to increase viscosity of the fracturing fluid. Thus, both the inorganic oxidizer salt and the aforementioned monovalent or divalent salt may promote micelle formation. The combined concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt and the monovalent or divalent salt in the VES hydraulic fracturing fluid may be at least 1 wt %, at least 3 wt %, at least 5 wt %, at least 7 wt %, at least 10 wt %, or at least 12 wt %, or at least 15 wt %. For implementations where a monovalent or divalent salt is not included in the formulation, the concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the reactive VES hydraulic fracturing fluid may be at least 3 wt %, at least 5 wt %, at least 7 wt %, or at least 10 wt %. These concentrations of the inorganic oxidizer may also be employed with the presence of a monovalent or divalent salt.

As mentioned, the reactive VES-based fluid may include organic compounds, such as phthalic acid, salicylic acid, or their salts. The salicylate or other ion in the presence of the surfactant may cause the viscoelastic gel to form. The acid (nonionic) form of these compounds causes the viscoelasticity development to be delayed until the pH is altered (raised) and the anion is released. For example, the pH may be raised by adding urea that is hydrolyzed as the solution starts to heat after pumping into the wellbore and formation. This is a way of imparting some control over when the viscoelasticity develops. In some cases, carboxylic acid and the —OH group in salicylic acid interacts with the quaternary ammonium group of VES and acts as a crosslinker to link and make the micelles more robust. This aids formation of stable micelles and thus stable viscosity at formation temperatures. As also mentioned, other fluid additives in the reactive VES-based fluid may include a breaker, corrosion inhibitor, scale inhibitor, biocide, or pH buffer, or any combinations of these.

FIG. 9 is a well site 900 having a wellbore 902 formed through the Earth's surface 904 into a geological formation 906 in the Earth's crust. The geological formation 906 may be labeled as a subterranean formation, a rock formation, or a hydrocarbon formation. The geological formation 906 may be an unconventional formation to be subjected to hydraulic fracturing.

The wellbore 902 can be vertical, horizontal, or deviated. The wellbore 902 can be openhole but is generally a cased wellbore. The annulus between the casing and the formation 906 may be cemented. Perforations may be formed through the casing and cement into the formation 906. The perforations may allow both for flow of fracturing fluid into the geological formation 906 and for flow of produced hydrocarbon from the geological formation 906 into the wellbore 902.

The well site 900 may have a hydraulic fracturing system including a source 908 of fracturing fluid 910 at the Earth surface 904 near or adjacent the wellbore 902. The source 108 may include one or more vessels holding the fracturing fluid 910. The fracturing fluid 110 may be stored in vessels or containers on ground, on a vehicle (for example, truck or trailer), or skid-mounted. The fracturing fluid 910 may be a water-based fracturing fluid. In some implementations, the fracturing fluid 910 is slickwater that may be primarily water (for example, at least 98.5% water by volume). The fracturing fluid 910 can be prepared from seawater. The fracturing fluid 910 can also be gel-based fluids. The fracturing fluid 910 can include polymers and surfactants. Other additives to the fracturing fluid 910 may include hydrochloric acid, friction reducer, emulsion breaker, emulsifier, temperature stabilizer, and crosslinker. Fracturing fluids 910 of differing viscosity may be employed in the hydraulic fracturing. The fracturing fluid 910 may include proppant. In the illustrated embodiment, the fracturing fluid 910 is a reactive VES-based fracturing fluid for at least a portion of the hydraulic fracturing operation.

The hydraulic fracturing system at the well site 900 may include motive devices such as one or more pumps 912 to pump (inject) the fracturing fluid 910 through the wellbore 902 into the geological formation 906. The pumps 912 may be, for example, positive displacement pumps and arranged in series or parallel. Again, the wellbore 902 may be a cemented cased wellbore and have perforations for the fracturing fluid 910 to flow (injected) into the formation 906. In some implementations, the speed of the pumps 910 may be controlled to give desired flow rate of the fracturing fluid 910. The system may include a control component to modulate or maintain the flow of fracturing fluid 910 into the wellbore 902 for the hydraulic fracturing. The control component may be, for example, a control valve(s). In some implementations, as indicated, the control component may be the pump(s) 912 as a metering pump in which speed of the pump 912 is controlled to give the desired or specified flow rate of the fracturing fluid 910. The set point of the control component may be manually set or driven by a control system, such as the control system 914.

The fracturing fluid 910 may be prepared (formulated and mixed) offsite prior to disposition of the fracturing fluid 910 into the source 908 vessel at the well site 900. Alternatively, a portion (some components) of the fracturing fluid 910 may be mixed offsite and disposed into the source 908 vessel and the remaining portion (remaining components) of the fracturing fluid 910 added to the source 908 vessel or to a conduit conveying the fracturing fluid 910. In other implementations, the fracturing fluid 908 may be prepared onsite with components added to (and batch mixed in) the source 908 vessel.

For embodiments of the fracturing fluid 910 as a reactive VES-based fracturing fluid, the fracturing fluid 910 in the source 908 vessel may have all components of the fracturing fluid 910. In certain embodiments, some components of the fracturing fluid 910 may be added to the source 908 vessel near or at the time (or during) the pumping of the fracturing fluid 910 into the wellbore 902 for the hydraulic fracturing. However, in other embodiments, not all components of the fracturing fluid 910 are include in the source 908 vessel. Instead, at least one component of the fracturing fluid 910 is be added to the conduit conveying the fracturing fluid 910 either on the suction of the pump 912 or discharge of the pump 912, or both, as the fracturing fluid 910 is being pumped into the wellbore 902.

An additive or component 916 may be added to the fracturing fluid 908. For the reactive VES-based fracturing fluid, the component 916 may be, for example, surfactant or the inorganic oxidizer salt. The concentration of the component 916 (for example, inorganic oxidizer salt) in the fracturing fluid 910 may be maintained or adjusted by modulating a flow rate (mass or volume) of addition of the component 916 via a control device 918. The set point of the control device 918 may be manually set or specified (directed) by the control system 914. The control device 918 may be a control valve on the conduit conveying component 916 to the source 908 (for example, vessel) of the fracturing fluid 910. For the component 916 as the inorganic oxidizer salt, the inorganic oxidizer salt may be added as a solid (powder), for example, via the control device 918 as a rotary feeder valve. Alternatively, the inorganic oxidizer salt may in added in an aqueous dispersion to the fracturing fluid 910 in the source 908 vessel. Moreover, instead of adding the component 916 to the source 108 vessel, the component 916 may be added to the discharge conduit of the pump 912 as the pump 912 is providing the fracturing fluid 910 into the wellbore 902.

The hydraulic fracturing system at the well site 900 may have a source of proppant, which can include railcars, hoppers, containers, or bins having the proppant. Proppant may be segregated by type or mesh size (particle size). The proppant can be, for example, sand or ceramic proppants. The source of proppant may be at the Earth surface 904 near or adjacent the wellbore 902. The proppant may be added to the fracturing fluid 910 such that the fracturing fluid 910 includes the proppant. In some implementations, the proppant may be added (for example, via gravity) to a conduit conveying the frac fluid 110, such as at a suction of a fracturing fluid pump 912. A feeder or blender may receive proppant from the proppant source and discharge the proppant into pump 912 suction conduit conveying the fracturing fluid 110.

The fracturing fluid 910 may be a slurry having the solid proppant. The pump 912 discharge flow rates (frac rates) may include a slurry rate which may be a flow rate of the fracturing fluid 910 as slurry having proppant. The pump 912 discharge flow rates (frac rates) may include a clean rate which is a flow rate of fracturing fluid 910 without proppant. In particular implementations, the fracturing system parameters adjusted may include at least pump(s) 912 rate, proppant concentration in the frac fluid 910, component 916 addition rate, and component 916 concentration in the fracturing fluid 910. Fracturing operations can be manual or guided with controllers.

The well site 900 may include a control system 914 that supports or is a component of the hydraulic fracturing system. The control system 914 includes a processor 920 and memory 922 storing code 924 (logic, instructions) executed by the processor 920 to perform calculations and direct operations at the well site 900. The processor 920 may be one or more processors and each processor may have one or more cores. The hardware processor(s) 920 may include a microprocessor, a central processing unit (CPU), a graphic processing unit (GPU), a controller card, or other circuitry. The memory may include volatile memory (for example, cache and random access memory (RAM)), nonvolatile memory (for example, hard drive, solid-state drive, and read-only memory (ROM)), and firmware. The control system 914 may include a desktop computer, laptop computer, computer server, programmable logic controller (PLC), distributed computing system (DSC), controllers, actuators, control cards, an instrument or analyzer, and a user interface. In operation, the control system 914 may facilitate processes at the well site 900 and including to direct operation of aspects of the hydraulic fracturing system.

The control system 914 may be communicatively coupled to a remote computing system that performs calculations and provides direction. The control system 914 may receive user input or remote-computer input that specifies the set points of the control device 916 or other control components in the hydraulic fracturing system. The control system 914 may specify the set point of the control device 918 for the component 916 addition. In some implementations, the control system 914 may calculate or otherwise determine the set point of the control device 118. The determination may be based at least in part on the operating conditions of the hydraulic fracturing and on information (or feedback) regarding the amount of kerogen in the region of the geological formation 906 being hydraulically fractured.

The fracturing fluid as a VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials may be applied (pumped) without other hydraulic fracturing fluids employed in the hydraulic fracturing. In other words, the VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials (for example inorganic oxidizer salt) may be pumped as a stand-alone hydraulic fracturing treatment to fracture the formation and to transport proppant. However, the VES-based fluid may also be applied (pumped) in tandem (in a sequence) with other fluids including other hydraulic fracturing fluids.

The VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials and proppant may be pumped alternatively with VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials and no proppant as a hybrid treatment. The VES-based fracturing fluid may also be pumped as part of conductivity channel fracturing. In other applications, the VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials may be pumped as part of a slickwater hydraulic fracturing operation in which the VES fluid is the proppant-laden fluid in the sequence. In certain implementations, the slickwater includes oxidizer for breaking down kerogen. The slickwater may be pumped before and after the VES fluid in the hydraulic fracturing. In certain cases, VES fluid is pumped first followed by slickwater fluid or other viscosified fluid so that when the VES fluid enters microfractures, the VES fluid generally does not damage the formation as slick water polymers can leave residue. The other viscosified fluid may include, for example, a fracturing fluid viscosified via a polymer.

The VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials may be pumped alternatively with CO₂-based fluids. A benefit of employing a CO₂-based fracturing fluid in tandem with the reactive VES-based fracturing fluid is that CO₂ slugs can promote expulsion of hydrocarbons from the formation. Further, CO₂-based fracturing fluid may include an oxidizer to break down organic material (kerogen) in the formation. CO₂ slugs may enhance delivery of oxidizer to the kerogen. The oxidizer in the CO₂-based fluid may be an organic oxidizer that is soluble in organic solutions or non-polar media (solvents) because the CO₂-based fracturing fluid may generally be non-polar. These “organic oxidizers” may include an organic cation and an oxidizer inorganic anion. The oxidizer inorganic anion may be, for example, chlorate or bromate. Other oxidizer inorganic anions of the organic oxidizers may include persulfate, perborate, percarbonate, hypochlorite, chlorite, peroxide, or iodate.

Another implementation of a CO₂-based fracturing fluid that may be sequenced with the reactive VES-based fracturing fluid is a foam emulsion (oxidizer foam) including CO₂ (or other inert gas), water, and oxidizer to break down the kerogen in the formation during hydraulic fracturing. A benefit may include reduction of water use. Another benefit may be the effect of the inert gas (CO₂) on hydrocarbon recovery in displacement of hydrocarbons from the kerogen-laden formation. The oxidizer(s) in the foam may be at least one of an inorganic oxidizer and an organic oxidizer, which may reside in different phases of the foam, respectively.

Yet another implementation of a CO₂-based fracturing fluid that may be sequenced with the reactive VES-based fracturing fluid is supercritical CO₂ fracturing fluid. The supercritical CO₂ may have reactive oxidizer gases (for example, bromine, chlorine, chlorine dioxide, or ozone) for the treatment of kerogen-containing rocks to enhance hydraulic fracturing efficiency of unconventional source rock formations. The reactive oxidizer gases may chemically degrade kerogen to enhance rock fracability and clean fracture faces to increase permeability and decrease proppant embedment. The reactive gases may be suited for CO₂-based fracturing fluids because unlike conventional oxidizers, the reactive oxidizer gases here are either soluble in non-polar solvents or can be mixed and delivered in the non-polar solvent stream. The oxidizing gas as molecules may exist as a gas or supercritical fluid (at reservoir conditions) that is soluble in supercritical CO₂ and has a standard redox potential in excess of 1 volt. Reservoir conditions may be, for example, temperature greater than 200° F. and pressure greater than 3000 pounds per square inch gauge (psig). These reactive gases include, for example, bromine (Br₂), chlorine (Cl₂), fluorine (F₂), chlorine monofluoride (ClF), chlorine dioxide (ClO₂), oxygen (O₂), ozone (O₃), nitrous oxide (N₂O), or nitrite (NO₂) gases. Reactive gases may also be generated in situ upon injection of precursors with CO₂ into the formation.

The technique may involve mixing of supercritical CO₂ with an oxidizing gas stream. These oxidizing gas chemicals can be mixed on-the-fly with liquid CO₂ and surfactant to form the emulsion and pumped. The oxidant (oxidizer) should be consumed downhole and therefore may beneficially preclude flowback treatment or disposal. If the oxidant is prepared in situ, then the precursors may be injected with supercritical CO₂. For example: (1) the first precursor with CO₂ is injected, (2) a CO₂ spacer is then pumped, and (3) the second precursor with CO₂ is then injected. This sequence may prevent or reduce premature reaction of the precursors to form the reactive gas.

For bromine as the reactive gas, the bromine reacts with the kerogen and pyrite. The bromine may partially depolymerize the kerogen (a geopolymer). This reaction of bromine with kerogen may form light-chain products that escape when the CO₂ is vented. This reaction of bromine with kerogen may also form a brominated kerogen tar at least partially soluble in CO₂. This kerogen tar may be soluble in hydrocarbons and therefore leave the rock matrix migrating from the formation to the wellbore.

As for supply of ClO₂ as an oxidizer in the supercritical CO₂, ClO₂ generators commercially available may be deployed at the well site. The ClO₂ gas can be mixed with liquid CO₂ on-the-fly for the stimulation and treatment of organic-rich shale formation for enhanced hydrocarbon production. The ClO₂ gas generally does not hydrolyze when entering water and remains a dissolved gas in solution. The ClO₂ gas may be up to 10 times more soluble in water than is chlorine and therefore a larger dose (compared to chlorine) of the oxidizer gas ClO₂ can be delivered to the formation. In lieu of relying on ClO₂ generators, the ClO₂ gas may instead be generated in situ (downhole in the wellbore) via, for example, utilizing sodium chlorite. Over time, produced ClO₂ gas may help degrade the kerogen and increase production. If ClO₂ is the oxidant, ClO₂ should be prepared on site and used as a mixture with air.

Lastly, other CO2-based hydraulic fracturing fluids may be employed in tandem with the present reactive VES-based fracturing fluid. For example, CO2-based fluids with an oxidizer contain in-situ forming halogens may be employed.

FIG. 10 is a method 1000 of hydraulic fracturing a geological formation. The geological formation includes organic material, such as kerogen.

At block 1002, the method includes providing a VES fracturing fluid having a surfactant and an inorganic oxidizer salt through a wellbore into the geological formation. In implementations, the method includes pumping the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The pumping may inject the VES fracturing fluid through perforations in cemented casing of the wellbore into the geological formation. The VES fracturing fluid may be a reactive VES fracturing fluid because of the presence of the inorganic oxidizing salt in the VES fracturing fluid. The concentration of the inorganic oxidizing salt in the VES fracturing fluid may be, for example, in a range of 1 wt % to 20 wt %. In some implementations, the concentration of the inorganic salt in the reactive VES fracturing fluid is at least 3 wt % or at least 5 wt %.

The VES fracturing fluid may include water. The VES fracturing fluid may include the surfactant at a concentration in a range of 0.1 wt % to 10 wt %. The method may include forming worm-like micelles from molecules of the surfactant to increase viscosity of the reactive VES fracturing fluid. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may include polymer to further increase viscosity of the reactive VES fracturing fluid. In other embodiments, the VES fracturing fluid does not include polymer.

The VES fracturing fluid may include another salt that is a monovalent salt or a divalent salt to promote formation of worm-like micelles from molecules of the surfactant that entangle to increase viscosity of the VES fracturing fluid. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may have this salt (for example, a monovalent salt or a divalent salt) that is not an oxidizer to promote micelle formation of the surfactant and with this salt at a concentration of less than 15 wt % in the VES fracturing fluid.

The method may include optionally adding proppant to the VES fracturing fluid. The VES fracturing fluid have proppant for at least a portion of time of providing (pumping) the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation.

At block 1004 the method includes hydraulically fracturing the geological formation via the providing (pumping) of the VES fracturing fluid to form hydraulic fractures in the geological formation. The organic material (for example, kerogen) is present in the hydraulic fractures. Kerogen exists at fracture faces of the hydraulic fractures. In the initial forming of the hydraulic fractures, the kerogen blocks permeability between portions of the fracture faces and the geological formation. A fracture face is generally an interface of a hydraulic fracture with the geological formation.

At block 1006, the method includes oxidizing organic material (for example, kerogen) in the hydraulic fractures with the VES fracturing fluid. The oxidizing of the organic material may involve degrading and fragmenting the organic material. The oxidizing of the organic material may make the organic material (or at least a portion of the organic material) soluble in aqueous fluid. The degrading of the organic material may involve fragmenting the organic material to generate a permeable channel through the organic material. The oxidizing may include oxidizing organic material at a fracture face of the hydraulic fracture to fragment the organic material at the fracture face to generate a permeable channel from the geological formation into the hydraulic fracture. The generating the permeable channel increases conductivity of hydrocarbon from the geological formation through the hydraulic fracture to the wellbore. While fragments of the organic material may remain at the fracture face, the permeability is increased due the oxidation and attack by the VES fracturing fluid having the inorganic oxidizer salt. The oxidizing may include degrading the organic material involving dividing the organic material into pieces that can be solubilized in aqueous treatment fluid that is flowed back through the wellbore to the Earth surface.

At block 1008, the method includes specifying a concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in a VES fracturing fluid. The method may include specifying a concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fracturing fluid (reactive) based at least in part on an amount of kerogen in the geological formation. The VES fracturing fluid may include the inorganic oxidizer salt at the concentration as specified. The method may include adding the inorganic oxidizer salt to the reactive VES fracturing fluid to give the concentration as specified.

The concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fracturing fluid can depend on the quantity of kerogen or other organic matter in the reservoir rock in the geological formation, such as in the region of the geological formation being subjected to hydraulic fracturing with the VES fracturing fluid. The concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fracturing fluid to implement can be determined (specified) based on the particular inorganic oxidizer salt selected and on the amount and type of kerogen in the geological formation. Source-rock samples collected from the geological formation being hydraulically fractured or to be hydraulically fractured can be collected and analyzed. For example, laboratory tests (for instance, including etching) can be performed on kerogen embedded in rock surfaces of the samples. Further, the weight percent of the total organic carbon (TOC) in the formation can be determined, for example, via a TOC analyzer or pyrolysis unit. The amount of kerogen in the subterranean region of the geological formation to be hydraulically fractured can be calculated, determined, or estimated.

The amount of pyrite or other iron sulfides in the subterranean formation may also be considered in specifying the concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fracturing fluid. The weight percent of iron sulfide in the formation can be determined, for example, by testing the source-rock samples employing x-ray fluorescence, x-ray diffraction, or energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The amount of kerogen or iron sulfide can also be taken, deduced, or inferred from well logs in certain instances. The determining or specifying the inorganic oxidizer salt concentration can account for the amount of inorganic oxidizer salt needed to degrade the organic material including kerogen while also accounting for the iron sulfide present in the formation.

The rock surface area within the fracture network that the reactive VES fluid will make contact in the formation can be considered with respect to specifying concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fluid. The expected size of the fracture network and the resulting surface area of the fractured zones can be estimated. Other factors relevant in determining or calculating the amount (concentration) of inorganic oxidizer salt to specify in the reactive VES fluid may include: (1) any organic components in the VES fluid; and (2) any organic components and amount of fluid downhole (including in the wellbore) at the time of placing the reactive VES fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation.

At block 1010, the method optionally includes alternating or sequencing the reactive VES fracturing fluid. The VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials and proppant may be pumped alternatively with VES-based fluid containing oxidative materials and no proppant as a hybrid treatment. The VES-based fracturing fluid may also be pumped as part of conductivity channel fracturing. In other applications, the method may include providing (pumping) a slickwater fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation before (and after) providing the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The slickwater fracturing fluid may include an oxidizer. The VES fracturing fluid may include proppant. The method may include pumping a slickwater fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation in sequence with the pumping of the reactive VES-based fracturing fluid, where the VES-based fracturing fluid has proppant.

The method may include a sequence that alternates pumping a CO₂-based fracturing fluid with pumping the VES fracturing fluid having the oxidizer. The method may include alternating in a sequence: (1) providing a CO₂-based fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation with (2) providing the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The CO₂-based fracturing fluid may have an oxidizer to attack kerogen.

At block 1012, the method may further include in addition to hydraulic fracturing, the production of hydrocarbon from the geological formation. The method may include producing hydrocarbon from the geological formation through the permeable channel (block 1006) and the hydraulic fracture(s) to the wellbore.

At block 1014, the method may include applying a reactive VES fluid for treatments other than hydraulic fracturing. This reactive VES-based treatment fluid may be the same or similar as the aforementioned VES fracturing fluid applied for hydraulic fracturing. These additional treatments may be outside of the context of hydraulic fracturing or in combination with the hydraulic fracturing. Implementations of treatments with the VES-based treatment fluid include: (1) upgrading oil in the subterranean formation (geological formation) by oxidizing the oil to reduce the boiling point of the oil; (2) degrading filter cake during openhole drilling or during hydraulic fracturing; (3) breaking organic matter (for example, paraffin, bitumen, or oil) in the subterranean formation by reducing the viscosity of the organic matter; and (4) removing organic scale (buildup) from a subterranean formation for clean-up to facilitate subsequent fluid injection for the wellbore employed as an injection well. The inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES treatment fluid may include iodates (IO₃ ⁻).

Iodate salts may be included as the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fluid for options of heavy oil upgrading, in situ methane conversion, and other applications. The iodate salt may be IO₃ ⁻ paired with lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc.

An implementation may be to pump the present VES fluid (having an inorganic oxidizer salt) through a wellbore into the subterranean formation to upgrade heavy oil in the subterranean formation. The upgrade of the heavy oil may be performed with the wellbore as an openhole wellbore. Heavy oil can include asphalt and bitumen. Heavy oil may be crude oil having an API gravity less than 22°, less than 21°, or less than 20°. Heavy oil may be crude oil having an API gravity in the range of 10° to 22°, 10° to 21°, or 10° to 20°. Crude oil with an API gravity less than 10° can be characterized or labeled as extra-heavy crude oil. The VES fluid (VES-based fluid) can be employed to upgrade heavy oil or extra-heavy oil. The upgrade may be to reduce the boiling point and viscosity of the heavy oil. The oxidization of the heavy oil by the VES fluid may degrade the heavy oil. The degradation may upgrade the heavy oil in the sense of reducing the boiling point and viscosity. The oxidation may dissolve resinous components of the heavy oil. The oxidation may reduce the molecular weight of the heavy oil by breaking molecular chains (molecules) of the heavy oil into shorter chains (molecules) and thus reduce the viscosity and boiling point of the heavy oil.

Another implementation is to pump the present reactive VES fluid (reactive VES-based fluid) through a wellbore into the subterranean formation to degrade and remove filter cake. A property of drilling fluid (mud) may be the formation of a filter cake. This filter cake may be deposited on the porous rocks under overbalance pressure conditions. Filter cake (mud cake or wall cake) may be a layer formed by solid particles in drilling mud against porous zones due to differential pressure between hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure. The structure of the filter cake may include a solid deposition insoluble in water. The material insoluble in water may be organic material. The removal of the filter cake with the present VES fluid may be in openhole drilling or during hydraulic fracturing. The VES fluid may oxidize (attack) the filter cake to break down and dissolve (or dislodge) the filter cake. The oxidizing of organic material with the reactive VES fluid may involve degrading a filter cake with the reactive VES fluid during drilling of the wellbore as an openhole wellbore or during hydraulic fracturing of the subterranean (geological) formation.

Other implementations include to pump the reactive VES fluid (reactive VES-based fluid) through a wellbore into a subterranean formation to break organic matter (for example, paraffin, bitumen, or oil) in the subterranean formation. The breaking (reducing the viscosity) of the organic matter may be by oxidation via the VES fluid. The oxidation may dissolve or partially dissolve the organic matter to reduce viscosity. Such may advance formation conductivity and thus subsequent oil and gas production. Yet other implementations may pump the present VES through a wellbore of an injection well to remove organic scale (buildup, residue) from a subterranean formation for clean-up of the organic scale. Such may facilitate subsequent fluid injection through the wellbore and subterranean formation in the operation of the injection well.

EXAMPLES

The Examples are given only as examples and not meant to limit the present techniques. Example 1 and Example 2 are initially presented.

Example 1

Example 1 is directed to evaluating substitution of sodium bromate (an inorganic oxidizer salt) for typical salt in a VES fluid. In particular, three VES-based fluids were prepared in order to determine the effect of adding strong oxidizing salts (sodium bromate in particular in Example 1) to the fluid mixture and whether an oxidizing salt could replace the calcium chloride (or potassium chloride) typically used in VES fluids for hydraulic fracturing applications. The three VES fluids were prepared with water and erucamidopropyl hydroxypropylsultaine (as the viscoelastic surfactant) commercially known as Armovis EHS® available from Akzo Nobel N.V. having headquarters in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Salt was added to the three VES fluids. In particular the three VES fluids included: (1) the VES fluid containing calcium chloride (CaCl₂) salt; (2) the VES fluid containing both CaCl₂ salt and sodium bromate (NaBrO₃) oxidizer salt; and (3) the VES fluid containing NaBrO₃ oxidizer salt.

FIG. 11 is Table 1 (1100) giving solution parameters for these three VES fluid samples prepared for viscosity measurements. The sample column 1102 notes the respective sample number of 1, 2, or 3. The water 1104 in each sample was 135 milliliters (mL). The VES 1106 (erucamidopropyl hydroxypropylsultaine) in each sample was 7.5 mL. The amount 1108 of calcium chloride dehydrate (CaCl₂.2H₂O) is given in grams (g). The molality (m) 1110 of CaCl₂ is given in kilogram per mole of solution of the respective VES fluid samples. The amount 1112 of NaBrO₃ is given in grams (g). The molality (m) 1114 of NaBrO₃ is given in kilogram per mole of solution of the respective VES fluid samples. The total ion molality 1116 is give in kilograms per mole of solution of the respective VES fluid samples. The three samples of the VES fluids were prepared by first dissolving the salt(s) in the volume of water 1104 listed in the table. Then, the VES 1108 was added and the solution agitated for mixing.

After each fluid was prepared, the viscosity was measured with a rheometer. The temperature was initially ramped to 200° F. and held until the viscosity stabilized. The viscosity of all three fluids were similar (around 200 cP) with the highest viscosity (about 230 cP) corresponding to the highest total ion molality in solution and the lowest viscosity (about 175 cP) corresponding to the lowest total ion molality in solution. The effect of oxidizing salt as a replacement or addition is beneficially negligible, which suggests that the charge added by this salt is sufficient to encourage worm-like micelle formation in solution. This evaluation also shows that the surfactant is not susceptible to oxidative degradation at these temperatures. These two factors demonstrate that this fluid could be effectively pumped into the unconventional source rock formation.

In the tests, the temperature of the fluids were ramped and held to a series of greater temperatures: 250° F., 300° F., and 350° F. At 250° F., the viscosities of the fluids notably drop to about 100 cP, but the viscosities are stable at that temperature suggesting that the fluids had not degraded. Further temperature ramping (through 300° F. to 350° F.) shows the viscosity dropping to about 0 cP. These temperatures of 300+° F., however, are beyond the temperatures at which these fluids are pumped and therefore do not limit application of the fluids.

FIG. 12 is a plot 1200 of viscosity (cP) 1202 and temperature (° F.) 1204 over time 1206 in hours (h). The plot 1200 gives rheological data for the three samples of VES-based fluid. The curve 1208 is the viscosity of sample 1. The curve 1210 is the viscosity of sample 2. The curve 1212 is the viscosity of sample 3. The three curves 1214 for temperature of the three samples, respectively, are essentially same at the relevant portion (temperatures) of the tests.

Example 2

Example 2 is directed to evaluating stability of a VES-based fluid having an inorganic oxidizer salt and a polymer. A polymer may be added to a VES fluid to boost viscosity of the VES fluid. However, the polymer may be susceptible to oxidative degradation. To evaluate whether such degradation would occur at the temperatures and timescale of a hydraulic fracturing job with a reactive VES, a VES fluid containing sodium bromate (an inorganic oxidizer salt) as the sole salt was prepared with three different amounts of a polymer. The polymer was Flopaam™ 5915 SH (abbreviated here as FP5915SH) from SNF Floerger having headquarters in Andrézieux, France. The FP5915SH polymer is a hydrophobically modified anionic-polyacrylamide-based terpolymer with the hydrophobic monomer content less than 1.5 mol % and containing 10-25 mol % of sulfonic monomer. The FP5915SH polymer was added in slurry form to three VES fluid samples.

FIG. 13 is Table 2 (1300) giving components of the tested fluids (the three VES fluid samples). Table 2 are solution parameters for the three VES fluids prepared with polymer additive FP9515SH for viscosity measurement. The sample column 1302 notes the respective sample number of 4, 5, or 6. The water 1304 in each sample was 135 mL. The VES 1306 (erucamidopropyl hydroxypropylsultaine) in each sample was 7.5 mL. The volume 1308 of FP9515SH polymer slurry added is given in mL. The amount 1310 of NaBrO₃ is given in grams (g). The molality (m) 1312 of NaBrO₃ is given in kilogram per mole of solution of the respective VES fluid samples.

FIG. 14 is a plot 1400 of viscosity (cP) 1402 and temperature (° F.) 1404 over time 1406 in hours (h). The plot 1400 gives rheological data for the three samples of VES-based fluid prepared with the FP9515SH polymer. Fluid compositional data is given in Table 2 of FIG. 13. In FIG. 14, the curve 1408 is the viscosity of sample 4. The curve 1410 is the viscosity of sample 5. The curve 1412 is the viscosity of sample 6. The curves 1414 is the approximate temperature of the three samples 4, 5, and 6 during the viscosity during the viscosity measurements. As can be seen in plot 1400, increasing addition of the polyacrylamide terpolymer (FP9515SH) increases the viscosity of the VES fluid. The fluid is stable at 200° F.

An embodiment is a method of hydraulic fracturing, including providing a VES fracturing fluid having a surfactant and an inorganic oxidizer salt through a wellbore into a geological formation to hydraulically fracture the geological formation to form a hydraulic fracture in the geological formation. The method includes oxidizing organic material in the hydraulic fracture with the VES fracturing fluid. The oxidizing of the organic material includes degrading (for example, fragmenting) the organic material, which includes kerogen. The oxidizing of the organic material may make at least a portion of the organic material soluble in aqueous fluid. The degrading of the organic material may involve fragmenting the organic material to generate a permeable channel through the organic material. The oxidizing may include oxidizing organic material at a fracture face of the hydraulic fracture to fragment the organic material at the fracture face to generate a permeable channel from the geological formation into the hydraulic fracture to increase conductivity of hydrocarbon from the geological formation through the hydraulic fracture to the wellbore. The fracture face may be an interface of the hydraulic fracture with the geological formation.

In certain implementations, the VES fracturing fluid does not include polymer. The concentration of the surfactant in the VES fracturing fluid may be in a range of 0.1 wt % to 10 wt %. The method may include specifying a concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fracturing fluid based at least in part on an amount of kerogen in the geological formation. The VES fracturing fluid may have the inorganic oxidizer salt at the concentration as specified. The concentration of the inorganic salt in the VES fracturing fluid may be in a range of 1 wt % to 20 wt %. The inorganic oxidizer salt may include LiClO₃, NaClO₃, KClO₃, Mg(ClO₃)₂, Ca(ClO₃)₂, Sr(ClO₃)₂, Ba(ClO₃)₂, LiBrO₃, NaBrO₃, KBrO₃, Mg(BrO₃)₂, Ca(BrO₃)₂, Sr(BrO₃)₂, or Ba(BrO₃)₂, or any combinations thereof. The inorganic oxidizer salt may include iodates (IO₃ ⁻).

Iodate salts may be including as the inorganic oxidizer salt with the present VES as a delivery method, for example, for options of heavy oil upgrading, in situ methane conversion, and other applications. The specific iodate (IO₃ ⁻) salt may be similar salts to the aforementioned salts with lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc.

The VES fracturing fluid may have another salt (in addition to the inorganic oxidizer salt) that is a monovalent salt or a divalent salt to promote formation of worm-like micelles from molecules of the surfactant that entangle to increase viscosity of the VES fracturing fluid. The other salt may include LiF, NaF, KF, MgF₂, CaF₂, SrF₂, BaF₂, LiCl, NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂, CaCl₂, SrCl₂, BaCl₂, LiBr, NaBr, KBr, MgBr₂, CaBr₂, SrBr₂, or BaBr₂, or any combinations thereof. The salt may alter the induction time for oxidizer to react with ammonium cations and form acid.

The method may include adding proppant to the VES fracturing fluid. The VES fracturing fluid may include the proppant for at least a portion of time of providing the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The method may include providing a slickwater fracturing fluid (for example, also having an oxidizer) through the wellbore into the geological formation before or after providing the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The method may include providing a viscosified fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation before or after providing the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The method may include providing a CO₂-based fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation before or after providing the VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The CO₂-based fracturing fluid may have an organic oxidizer that attacks the organic material. The CO₂-based fracturing fluid includes a reactive gas that attacks the organic material. The reactive gas may be, for example, Br₂, Cl₂, F₂, ClF, ClO₂, O₂, O₃, N₂O, or NO₂, or any combinations thereof.

Another embodiment is a method including pumping a reactive VES fracturing fluid having a surfactant and an inorganic oxidizer salt through a wellbore into a geological formation for hydraulic fracturing of the geological formation. The method includes forming hydraulic fractures in the geological formation with the reactive VES fracturing fluid and oxidizing organic material in the hydraulic fractures with the reactive VES fracturing fluid. The method includes generating a permeable channel through organic material at a fracture face of a hydraulic fracture between the geological formation and the hydraulic fracture via oxidizing of the organic material at the fracture face with the reactive VES fracturing fluid. The oxidizing of the organic material (for example, including kerogen) at the fracture face may fragment the organic material at the fracture face. In certain implementations, the concentration of the inorganic salt in the reactive VES fracturing fluid is at least 3 wt %. In some implementations, the inorganic oxidizer salt may include magnesium peroxide, calcium peroxide, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sodium persulfate, potassium persulfate, sodium tetraborate, sodium percarbonate, sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, an iodate salt, a chlorite salt, a periodate salt, a dichromate salt, or a permanganate salt, or any combinations thereof. The oxidizing may include degrading the organic material involving dividing the organic material into pieces that can be solubilized in aqueous treatment fluid that is flowed back through the wellbore to the Earth surface.

The method may include forming worm-like micelles from molecules of the surfactant to increase viscosity of the reactive VES fracturing fluid. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may further include polymer to further increase viscosity of the reactive VES fracturing fluid. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may include a salt that is not an oxidizer to promote micelle formation of the surfactant. This salt may be, for example, a monovalent salt or a divalent salt and at a concentration in the reactive VES fracturing fluid less than 15 wt %. The method may include specifying a concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the reactive VES fracturing fluid based at least in part on an amount of kerogen in the geological formation. The method may include adding the inorganic oxidizer salt to the reactive VES fracturing fluid to give the concentration as specified. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may include proppant for at least a portion of time of pumping the reactive VES fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation. The method may include pumping a slickwater fracturing fluid through the wellbore into the geological formation in sequence with the pumping of the reactive VES-based fracturing fluid having proppant in the sequence. The method may include producing hydrocarbon from the geological formation through the permeable channel and the hydraulic fracture to the wellbore.

Yet another embodiment is a reactive VES fracturing fluid for hydraulic fracturing of a geological formation. The reactive VES fracturing fluid includes a surfactant at a concentration in the reactive VES fracturing fluid in a range of 0.1 wt % to 10 wt %. The reactive VES fracturing fluid includes an inorganic oxidizer salt for the reactive VES fracturing fluid to degrade kerogen in the geological formation. The concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fracturing fluid may be in a range of 1 wt % to 20 wt %. The concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the VES fracturing fluid may be at least 3 wt %. In implementations, the inorganic oxidizer salt may promote micelle formation of the surfactant. The inorganic oxidizer salt may include LiClO₃, NaClO₃, KClO₃, Mg(ClO₃)₂, Ca(ClO₃)₂, Sr(ClO₃)₂, Ba(ClO₃)₂, LiBrO₃, NaBrO₃, KBrO₃, Mg(BrO₃)₂, Ca(BrO₃)₂, Sr(BrO₃)₂, or Ba(BrO₃)₂, or any combinations thereof. The inorganic oxidizer salt may include magnesium peroxide, calcium peroxide, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sodium persulfate, potassium persulfate, sodium tetraborate, sodium percarbonate, sodium hypochlorite, an iodate salt, a periodate salt, a dichromate salt, or a permanganate salt, or any combinations thereof. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may include a salt that is not the inorganic oxidizer salt, that is inert to oxidation, and that promotes micelle formation of the surfactant to increase viscosity of the reactive VES fracturing fluid. The salt may also accelerate or delay the formation of acid. Concentration of this salt (for example, a monovalent salt or a divalent salt) in the reactive VES fracturing fluid is generally in a range of 0.1 wt % to 30 wt %, or may be less than 15 wt %. This salt that is not the inorganic oxidizer salt may include LiF, NaF, KF, MgF₂, CaF₂, SrF₂, BaF₂, LiCl, NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂, CaCl₂, SrCl₂, BaCl₂, LiBr, NaBr, KBr, MgBr₂, CaBr₂, SrBr₂, or BaBr₂, or any combinations thereof. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may include phthalic acid, salicylic acid, or their salts, or any combination thereof. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may include a crosslinkable polymer. The reactive VES fracturing fluid may include a crosslinked polymer that increases viscosity of the reactive VES fracturing fluid.

Yet another embodiment is a reactive VES fracturing fluid for hydraulic fracturing of a subterranean formation. The reactive VES fracturing fluid includes water (for example seawater), a surfactant at a concentration in the reactive VES fracturing fluid in a range of 0.5 wt % to 10 wt %, and an inorganic oxidizer salt for the reactive VES fracturing fluid to oxidize kerogen in the subterranean formation to fragment the kerogen. The VES fracturing fluid may have another salt including a monovalent salt or a divalent salt, or a combination thereof, to promote micelle formation of the surfactant. The surfactant may be a zwitterionic surfactant that is a betaine or a sultaine. The surfactant may be a zwitterionic surfactant that is a dihydroxyl alkyl glycinate, alkyl ampho acetate or propionate, alkyl amidoamine oxide, gemini VES, alkyl betaine, alkyl amidopropyl betaine, alkylimino mono-propionates, or alkylimino di-propionates, or any combinations thereof. The surfactant may be a zwitterionic surfactant that is disodium tallowiminodipropionate, disodium oleamidopropyl betaine, or erucylamidopropyl betaine, or any combinations thereof. The surfactant may be a cationic surfactant, such as an alkylammonium salt. The alkylammonium salt may include oleyl methyl bis(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium chloride, erucyl bis(2-hydroxylethyl)methylammonium chloride, N, N, N, trimethyl-1-octadecammonium chloride, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), or dimethylene-1,2-bis(dodecyldimethylammonium bromide), or any combinations thereof. The surfactant may include an anionic surfactant, such as at least one of an alkyl sarcosinate or a sulfanate. The surfactant may include a nonionic surfactant, such as an amido amino oxide. In implementations, the surfactant may include a first surfactant that is a cationic surfactant and a second surfactant that is an anionic surfactant.

Yet another embodiment is a method of applying a reactive VES-based fluid. The method includes providing the reactive VES-based fluid having a surfactant and an inorganic oxidizer salt through a wellbore into a subterranean formation. The concentration of the inorganic oxidizer salt in the reactive VES-based fluid is in a range of 1 wt % to 20 wt %. In certain implementations, the concentration is at least is at least 3 wt %. The method includes oxidizing organic material in the subterranean formation with the reactive VES-based fluid. In some implementations, a filter cake includes the organic material. If so, the oxidizing of the organic material involves degrading the filter cake with the reactive VES-based fluid and where the wellbore is an openhole wellbore. The oxidizing of organic material may include degrading a filter cake with the reactive VES-based fluid during drilling of the wellbore, where the wellbore includes an openhole wellbore. The oxidizing of organic material may include degrading a filter cake with the reactive VES-based fluid during hydraulic fracturing of the subterranean formation with the reactive VES-based fluid.

In implementations, an injection well includes the wellbore. In these implementations, the oxidizing of the organic material involves oxidizing accumulated organic material to remove the accumulated organic material (for example, organic scale or organic residue) to promote fluid injection through the injection well into the subterranean formation. In other implementations, the oxidizing of the organic material involves upgrading oil in subterranean formation with the reactive VES-based fluid. The wellbore may be an openhole wellbore. The oil includes heavy oil having an American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity less than 20°. In implementations, the oxidizing of the organic material comprises includes breaking organic matter in subterranean formation with the reactive VES-based fluid. The organic matter includes heavy oil or paraffin, or a combination thereof.

Certain embodiments of the present techniques are directed to filter cake removal. The filter cake may be a very thin and impermeable layer with permeability ranging from 0.01 to 0.0001 millidarcy (md), which forms of solid materials deposited from the drilling fluid over the face of the permeable formation at the wellbore, as illustrated in FIG. 15. Filter cake formation may be beneficial or necessary during the drilling process because the filter cake may provide several functions for drilling, such as stabilizing the drilled formations, reducing drilling fluid filtration into the drilled formations, and reducing the solid particles invasion into the oil-bearing formations (and thus reduce associated formation damage. However, after the drilling operations, the drilling fluids and the filter cake film should generally be removed from the wellbore to enable a successful primary cementing job. Failure to remove the filter cake layer may lead to formation of a weak bond between the cement sheath and the formation rock. Also, filter cake removal may be advantageous or mandatory before the start of production operations to prevent or reduce impeding of the flow capacity at the wellbore. Filter cake removal could also enhance the injectivity of the fluids through injection wells. FIG. 15 is a schematic of the drilling process demonstrating the formation of filter cake on the walls of the wellbore while drilling mud is circulated. Solids from the drilling mud slurry builds on the surface of the formation as filter cake.

FIG. 15 is a well 1500 having a filter cake 1502. The well 1500 includes a wellbore 1504 formed in a subterranean formation 1506. The face of the formation 1506 is formed by drilling is the wellbore 1504 wall. A drill string 1508 and drill bit 1510 are disposed in the wellbore 1504. In the drilling operation, drilling fluid 1512 is injected (pumped) into the drill string 1508. The drilling fluid 1512 may be pumped, for example, be mud pumps from the Earth surface into the drill string 1508 in the wellbore 1502.

The well site of the well 1500 may include surface equipment, such as a mounted drilling rig, piping, storage tanks, and so on, at the Earth surface. The surface equipment may include the aforementioned mud pumps that may be, for example, centrifugal pumps, positive displacement pumps, reciprocating pumps, piston pumps, etc.

The wellbore 1504 diameter may be, for example, in a range from about 3.5 inches (8.9 centimeters) to 30 inches (76 centimeters), or outside of this range. The depth of the 1502 can range from 300 feet (100 meters) to more than 30,000 feet (9,100 meters). The wellbore 1504 can be vertical, horizontal, or deviated, or any combinations thereof. Once the wellbore 1502 is drilled, the wellbore 1502 may be completed.

To form a hole in the ground, the drill bit 1510 (having cutters) may be lowered into the wellbore 1504 and rotated to break the rock of the formation 1504. In the rotation, the cutters may interface with the formation 1506 to grind, cut, scrape, shear, crush, or fracture rock to drill the hole. The drill bit 1510 may be a component of the drill string 1508 or coupled to the drill string 1508. The drill bit 1510 may be lowered via the drill string 1508 into the wellbore 1504 (borehole) to drill the wellbore 1504 into the subterranean formation 1506 in the Earth crust. In operation, the drilling fluid 1510, also known as drilling mud, is circulated down the drill string 1508 and through multiple nozzles in the drill bit 1510 to the bottom of the wellbore 1504. The drilling fluid 1512 may then flow upward towards the surface through an annulus between the drill string 1510 and the wall of the wellbore 1504. The drilling fluid 1512 may cool the drill bit 1510, apply hydrostatic pressure upon the formation 1506 penetrated by the wellbore 1504 to prevent or reduce fluids from flowing into the wellbore 1502, reduce the torque and the drag force induced by the friction between the drill string 1508 and the wellbore 1504 wall, carry the formation cuttings up to the surface, and so forth.

The filter cake 1502 may be formed via the circulating drilling fluid 1512. Solids from the drilling fluid 1512 (a slurry) may build on the surface (face) of the formation 1506 (wellbore 1504 wall) as the filter cake 1502. The filter cake 1502 may form as solids of the drilling fluid 1512 slurry deposit on permeable portions of the formation 1506 face under wellbore 1504 pressure. Initially, as the filter cake 1502 is being deposited on the surface of the permeable material (permeable formation 1506), the material firstly serves as a filter and allows the liquid portions (filtrate) of the drilling fluid 1512 to pass through and trapping the insoluble solid portion as a cake. Over time, enough filter cake gathers on the surface of the permeable material (porous formation 1506), allowing little or no further liquid invasion. The drilling fluid 1512 may be configured for formation of the filter cake 1502. This filter cake 1502 may be deposited on the porous rocks under overbalance pressure conditions. The formation of filter cake 1512 may prevent or reduce further loss of drilling fluid 1512 into the formation 1506 and reduce solid invasion as well. In other words, the filter cake 1512 may help prevent loss circulation and formation damage that would be caused by fines and filtrate invasion into reservoir rocks. A filter cake 1502 that is relative thin and with low permeability may generally be desirable.

FIG. 16 is a sequence 1600 of particle buildup of filter cake (e.g., 1502 in FIG. 15) on the surface of the face of the subterranean formation in a wellbore. The particles 1602, 1604 signify solid components of the drilling mud formulation. The circles 1606 signify the granular porous nature of the subterranean rock formation, where some of the filter cake can invade into the formation. In the first diagram 1608 in the time sequence, the particles 1602, 1604 in the drilling fluid are depicted flowing toward the formation, as indicated by arrow 1610. In the second diagram 1612 in the time sequence later in time, the particles 1602, 1604 accumulate on the formation face (wellbore wall) in forming the filter cake. In this illustrated implementation, some of the smaller particles 1602 may invade into the formation. The third diagram 1614 in the time sequence is later in which the filter cake may be considered formed. The filter cake may be characterized as the collection of particles 1602, 1608 at the formation face. The build of the particles 1602, 1604 including the dense accumulation of the smaller particles 1602 may desirably provide for low permeability of the filter cake.

Filter cake removal may pose challenges. Water-based drilling fluid (drilling muds) may contain, for example, calcium carbonate, bentonite, barite, ilmenite, or manganese tetroxide as a weighting agent Thus, the filter cake including solids collected from the drilling fluid may have the weighting agent (a solid) (e.g., which may be about 80 wt % of the filter cake). Treatment solutions for cleaning up the filter cake may target this weighting agent as a predominant material from the drilling fluid in the filter cake.

One challenge may be that the polymer also from the drilling fluid in the filter cake (e.g., 10-15 wt % of the filter cake) may not degrade in the same treatment fluid designed for the weighting material. Acid, for example, can dissolve calcium carbonate but generally not polymer. Also, additives for breaking the polymer are often not compatible with the treating fluid. Further, the deposition of the filter cake may not be heterogeneous, and the polymer may be the predominant component of the top layer, meaning the polymer may need to be penetrated in order to treat the remainder of the filter cake.

A second challenge may be treating long horizontal sections of a wellbore, where uniform cleanup of the filter cake may be difficult. Acid or other reactive treatment fluids may be spent quickly near the heel of the well so that treatment does not extend to the end of the lateral. FIG. 17 is a well 1700 having a wellbore 1702 formed through the Earth surface 1704 into a subterranean formation 1706. The wellbore 1702 has a horizontal portion 1708 in a hydrocarbon reservoir section 1710 of the formation 1706. The wellbore 1702 has a filter cake 1712, such as that depicted in the third diagram 1614 of FIG. 16. A treatment fluid 1714 is injected into the wellbore 1702 to remove the filter cake 1712. For a treatment fluid 1714 having acid, such as hydrochloric acid, the acid may be spent quickly and thus may only treat (remove) the filter cake 1712 in a small section 1716 of the wellbore 1702. Thus, the second challenge may be stated as how to divert active treating fluid 1714 to the end portion 1718 of the long lateral of the wellbore 1702.

In certain implementations of the present techniques, the two aforementioned challenges may be addressed via a treatment fluid as a VES gelled fluid that contains a reactive breaker (oxidizing salt). The breaker even at high concentration (e.g., saturated in the treatment fluid) generally does not affect the gelling performance of the VES in implementations, but may break polymer upon exposure. By utilizing a gel, some of the oxidizing salt in the treatment fluid may extend across the lateral to break polymer in the filter cake at the end portion of the wellbore lateral. The oxidizing salt as the breaker may be at or below saturated conditions in the reactive treatment fluid. The oxidizing salt can exceed saturation. The concentration of the oxidizing salt can be in excess of that to break the polymer. The concentration of the oxidizing salt in the reactive treatment fluid may be specified based on (correlative with) the thickness of the filter cake and the particular well or section of the wellbore. The oxidizing salt may include bromate or other oxidizing anion. An example of the oxidizing salt is sodium bromate (NaBrO₃). In one implementation, the oxidizing salt is NaBrO₃ and is saturated (e.g., at greater than 22 wt %) in the reactive treatment fluid. The saturation concentration of the breaker (oxidizing salt) may be a function of the temperature of the reactive treatment fluid.

Further, the reactive treatment fluid can contain an acid-generating material that is neutral during mixing at Earth surface and during initial pumping into the wellbore. Once the treatment fluid increases in temperature in the wellbore due to heat provided by the subterranean formation, acid may be generated by the acid-generating material. Other triggers may also cause the reaction to occur that results in acid formation such as pH change. The acid may lower the viscosity of the gel. The acid may dissolve weighting material (e.g., calcium carbonate) of the filter cake.

Multiple techniques may be employed to generate acid in situ. A wide range of acids can be produced depending on the technique. An acid generated may be hydrochloric acid. The generation of the acid may involve liberation of hydrogen ions or hydrogen chloride.

A first technique may be to include a solid acid-generating material that is degradable. As the treatment fluid is applied in (flows through) the wellbore, the solid acid-generating material may degrade over time (due to formation temperature) to generate acid. The acid may lower the viscosity of the treatment fluid and also attack or dissolve the weighting agent (e.g., calcium carbonate) in the filter cake. The solid acid-generating material (degradable) may be solid particles and may be, for example, polylactic acid (PLA) (also known as polylactide), polyglycolic acid (PGA), an orthoester, or a polyanhydride, or any combinations thereof. The size of the particles can be, for example, in ranges of 20 microns (μm) to 2 mm, 100 microns to 1 mm, 100 microns to 500 microns, 125 microns to 400 microns, or 150 microns to 200 microns. The particular solid acid-generating material selected or specified may be based at least in part on the formation temperature (well temperature). For instance, in some implementations, PLA may be utilized, for example, for wells have higher temperature (e.g., at least 200° F. or in a range of 200° F. to 350° F. In another example, PGA may be utilized for wells with lower temperature, such as less than 200° F. or in a range of 140° F. to 200° F.

A second technique to generate acid in situ may be to incorporate an ester(s) into the reactive treatment fluid. As the reactive treatment fluid is applied to (flows through) the wellbore, the esters may hydrolyze over time to generate acid including due to temperature of the subterranean formation or wellbore. The acid may lower the viscosity of the reactive treatment fluid (VES gel) and also dissolve the weighting agent (e.g., calcium carbonate) from the previously-applied drilling fluid in the filter cake. The esters can be, for example, of carboxylic acid. Fast degrading esters may be utilized for wellbores in subterranean formations having lower temperatures. In contrast, slow hydrolyzing esters may be utilized for wellbores in subterranean formations having higher temperatures. The ester or esters may be labeled as acid-generating material in the reactive treatment fluid.

A third technique to generate acid in situ may be to add ammonium salt(s) to the reactive treatment fluid whereby excess oxidizing salt (such as bromate salts) in the reactive treatment fluid can oxidize ammonium to generate acid. The acid can lower the gel viscosity of the reactive treatment fluid and dissolve the weighting agent (e.g., calcium carbonate) in the filter cake. The combination of the ammonium salt and the oxidizing salt (e.g., bromate salt) may be labeled as acid-generating material in the reactive treatment fluid. The oxidizing salt can be the same oxidizing salt as the aforementioned reactive breaker. If so, the oxidizing salt in this acid generation may be excess oxidizing salt from the polymer breaking. This oxidizing salt may also be in excess to that needed to react with the ammonium for acid generation. The oxidizing salt can be different than the oxidizing salt that is the reactive breaker. The oxidizing salt may be a second oxidizing salt in addition to the oxidizing salt as the aforementioned reactive breaker that breaks the polymer in the filter cake. Regarding acid generation via ammonium oxidation, the anion of the ammonium salt may dictate the acid formed such that ammonium citrate produces citric acid, ammonium sulfonate produces sulfonic acid, ammonium sulfate produces sulfuric acid, etc. A wide variety of ammonium salts may be suitable for generating the acid. As non-limiting examples, see Examples 7-8 below. The length of an induction time prior to acid being generated may be controlled by the counteranion with the ammonium salt or by addition of nonoxidizing salts. In some embodiments, addition of lithium-based salts may delay the formation of acid. In some embodiments, addition of bromide-based salts may delay the formation of acid.

The amount or concentration of acid-generating material (e.g., esters, degradable solid particles, etc.) to specify to include in the reactive treatment fluid may be correlative with the amount or concentration of the weighting agent (e.g., calcium carbonate) in the filter cake. The quantity of acid-generating material in the reactive treatment fluid may be based on the amount of generated acid to dissolve most or all of the weighting agent in the filter cake. In certain embodiments, the amount of acid-generating material for the reactive treatment fluid may be specified to generate an amount of acid that is in a range of 2 to 5 times the amount of acid needed to dissolve all (or a majority) of the weighting agent (e.g., calcium carbonate) in the filter cake. Stoichiometry may be considered. The amount of acid-generating material (e.g., esters, degradable solid particles, etc.) to include in the reactive treatment fluid may be specified correlative with the calculated stoichiometric amount of acid to dissolve most or all of the weighting agent (e.g., calcium carbonate) in the filter cake. Again, the amount or concentration of the acid-generating material incorporated into the reactive treatment fluid may be based at least in part on the amount or concentration of the weighting agent the filter cake. The relationship may be a stoichiometric relationship based on the stoichiometry of the amount of generated acid to dissolve most or all of the weighting agent. In some implementations, the specified amount (concentration) of the acid generating material in the reactive treatment fluid may generate acid in a range of 2 to 5 times the stoichiometric amount of acid needed to dissolve most or all of the weighting agent in the filter cake.

In particular embodiments, the reactive treatment fluid for treating (removing) filter cake may include an inverting surfactant that is encapsulated. The material that encapsulates the inverting surfactant may be degradable. This degradable material encapsulating the inverting surfactant may degrade at the wellbore temperature and therefore release the inverting surfactant. In implementations, the inverting surfactant has a hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of at least 12. The inverting surfactant may be applicable for oil-based filter cake. The inverting surfactant released may invert oil-based filter cake formed by oil-based mud (oil-based drilling fluid). Such may promote breakage of oil-based mud and filter cake. The encapsulated inverting surfactant can be added to certain embodiments of the present reactive treatment fluid (VES-fluid).

EXAMPLES

The Examples are given only as examples and not meant to limit the present techniques. Example 3, Example 4, Example 5, Example 6, Example 7, and Example 8 are presented. Additional Examples are presented further below.

Example 3

Example 3 relates to an enhancement experiment #1 for filter cake permeability. An OFITE filter press was utilized. The OFITE filter press is available from OFI Testing Equipment, Inc. (OFITE) having headquarters in Houston, Texas, USA.

Drilling mud (drilling fluid) was prepared according to the following procedure. A mixer was utilized to combine 8 g KCl, 0.2 g sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 0.2 g sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), and 6 g hydroxyethyl cellulose. After mixing for 5 minutes, 1 g xanthan gum was added and mixed another minute. Then, 0.5 g sodium thiosulfate (NaS₂O₃), 0.5 biocide, 20 g calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) (particle size about 5 μm), and 20 g CaCO₃ (particle size about 20 μm) were added and mixed another minute. Defoamer was added dropwise as needed and mixed 30 more seconds to give the drilling mud.

An amount of 50 mL of the prepared drilling mud were placed in two separate cells of the OFITE filter press. A ceramic filter disc was added to each, and the cells were sealed and placed in the filter press. After heating to 150° F. for 1 hour, the back pressure was released and fluid at 1000 psig was allowed to pass through the filters producing solid cakes composed of the slurry components.

The cells were cooled and reopened to remove the ceramic filter discs. In the first cell, 50 mL of VES gel composed of 7.5 vol % Armovis EHS® in aqueous saturated NaBrO₃ solution was added. In the second cell, 50 mL of VES gel composed of 7.5 vol % Armovis EHS® in 10 wt % CaCl₂ was added. Armovis EHS® is zwitterionic surfactant that is an amphoteric VES available from Nouryon Company having headquarters in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The filter discs with filter cakes were placed back in the cell, and the cells were sealed and put back in the filter press. Each cell was heated to 225° F. for 1 hour at 1000 psig. Then, the bottom valve was opened to allow any filtrate to pass through. For VES with oxidizing salt, fluid passed through readily indicating that the polymeric material in the filter cake had degraded. For the VES with nonoxidizing salt, no fluid pass through the filter. Visual inspection of the filter cakes after removing them from the instrument confirmed these conclusions. FIG. 18 is an image 1800 of the two filter cakes. The filter cake 1802 on the left is associated with the VES with CaCl₂. The fluid generally did not pass through at 1000 psig. The final texture was very gooey from polymer inclusion. The filter cake 1804 on the right is the associated with the VES with NaBrO₃ (oxidizer). The fluid broke down the polymer and thus created permeability in the cake. The final texture was a clean dry powder.

Example 4

Example 4 relates to an enhancement experiment #2 for filter cake permeability. Drilling mud was prepared as in Example 3. Also as in Example 3, 50 mL of the prepared drilling mud were placed in two separate cells of the OFITE filter press. A ceramic filter disc was added to each, and the cells were sealed and placed in the filter press. After heating to 150° F. at 1000 psig for 1 hour, the back pressure was released and fluid was allowed to pass through the filters producing solid cakes composed of the slurry components. The cells were cooled and reopened to remove the ceramic filter discs. In the first cell, 50 mL of VES gel composed of 7.5 vol % Armovis EHS® in aqueous saturated NaBrO₃ solution was added. In the second cell, 50 mL of VES gel composed of 7.5 vol % Armovis EHS® in 10 wt % CaCl₂ was added. The filter discs with filter cakes were placed back in the cell, and the cells were sealed and put back in the filter press. Each cell was heated to 225° F. for 1 hour at 1000 psig, then the bottom valve was opened to allow any filtrate to pass through. In this case, the filtrate was collected on a balance. Initially, approximately 7 g of the oxidizing VES passed through the filter cake. After 40 more minutes, an additional 26 g of filtrate was collected, while only about 6 g total was collected from the CaCl₂ VES. FIG. 19 is a plot 1900 of the filtrate (g) versus time in minutes. The curve 1902 is for the 10 wt % CaCl₂ solution (noted in the legend). The curve 1904 is for the saturated NaBrO₃ solution (noted in the legend).

Example 5

Example 5 relates to gel breaking experiments. Viscosity tests (at 200° F. and 100 s⁻¹) were performed with 5 wt % and 7.5 wt % Armovis EHS® (VES) in saturated NaBrO₃ solution at 200° F. Experiments were performed with and without 2 wt % FP9515SH polymer (polymer), and with and without 1.6 wt % ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl). The polymer enhanced the viscosity of the VES (as previously demonstrated), and the ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) cations were oxidized by bromate (BrO₃ ⁻) to produce hydrogen ions H⁺. The decrease in pH disrupted the micelles, causing the viscosity to drop. The acid produced will also further decompose the filter cake by dissolving the CaCO₃. Other NH₄ ⁺ salts are also applicable. FIG. 20 is a plot 200 of viscosity (cP) over time (minutes). The curve 2002 is viscosity (over time) for the solution having 5 wt % VES, 2 wt % polymer and 2 wt % NH4C1. The curve 2004 is viscosity (over time) for the solution having 5 wt % VES and 2 wt % polymer. The curve 2006 is viscosity (over time) for the solution having 7.5 wt % VES and 2 wt % NH₄Cl. The curve 2008 is viscosity (over time) for the solution having 7.5 wt % VES.

Example 6

Example 6 relates to additional viscosity tests. Five VES-based fluids were prepared in order to determine the effect of various combinations of salts (oxidizing and nonoxidizing) on the viscosity of 8% Armovis EHS® solutions at various temperatures. The conditions for all five of the fluids are given in Table 3 below. The fluids were prepared by first dissolving the salt(s) in the volume of water listed in Table 3. Then, the VES was added and the solution agitated to ensure good mixing. FIG. 21 is a plot 2100 of viscosity (cP) over time (minutes) for the five fluids given in Table 3. The curves 2102, 2104, 2106, 2108, and 2110 in the plot 2100 are for the fluid samples 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The curve 2112 is temperature (° F.).

TABLE 3 Solution parameters for five VES fluids for viscosity measurements Water VES KCl KCl CaCl₂ · 2H₂O CaCl₂ NaBrO₃ NaBrO₃ Total ion Sample (mL) (mL) (g) (m) (g) (m) (g) (m) molality 1 130 12 0 0 10 0.45 0 0 1.34 2 130 12 0 0 7.5 0.34 3.75 0.166 1.35 3 130 12 0 0 0 0 15.3 0.677 1.35 4 130 12 7.5 0.67 0 0 0 0 1.34 5 130 12 5.7 0.51 0 0 3.75 0.166 1.34

Example 7

Example 7 is an example of generating in situ acid. Example 7 includes an implementation of the aforementioned third technique of generating an acid via a combination of an ammonium salt (e.g., NH₄CF₃SO₃) and oxidizing salt (e.g., NaBrO₃) that react with each other. In this example, 1.6 g of NaBrO₃ (10.6 mmol) and 1.67 g NH₄CF₃SO₃ (10 mmol) was dissolved in 27 mL of deionized water in a 120 mL Ace glass pressure tube. Then, 2.4 mL of Armovis EHS® was added, and the mixture was combined. The glass tube was sealed and placed in a recirculating oil bath at 100° C. for 24 hours. After cooling, the fluid pH was 1.23 and was titrated with NaOH revealing that 8.4 mmol of H⁺ had been generated.

Example 8

Example 8 is another example of generating in situ acid. Example 8 also includes an implementation of the aforementioned third technique of generating an acid via a combination of an ammonium salt (e.g., NH₄CF₃SO₃) and oxidizing salt (e.g., NaBrO₃) that react with each other. In this example, 1.6 g of NaBrO₃ (10.6 mmol) and 1.31 g NH₄CF₃CO₂ (10 mmol) was dissolved in 27 mL of deionized water in a 120 mL Ace glass pressure tube. Then, 2.4 mL of ArmoVis EHS was added, and the mixture was combined. The glass tube was sealed and placed in a recirculating oil bath at 100° C. for 24 hours. After cooling, the fluid pH was 1.24 and was titrated with NaOH revealing that 8.3 mmol of H⁺ had been generated.

VES surfactant can be gelled with oxidizing brine solutions. The gel strength may be comparable to that implemented with potassium chloride or calcium chloride. The filter cake breaking tests demonstrated positive results. The techniques may specify concentrations for desired gel profile, specify and expand temperature range of applications, and correlate applications with filter cake breaking tests under variable conditions.

Example 9

Example 9 were viscosity tests (in situ acid formed). Five VES-based fluids were prepared in order to determine the effect of various combinations of salts on the viscosity of 8 vol % Armovis EHS solutions at various temperatures. Each fluid contained both oxidizing salt and an ammonium salt capable of forming in situ acid. The conditions for all five of the fluids are listed in Table 4 below. The fluids were prepared by first dissolving the salt(s) in the volume of water listed in Table 4. Then, the VES was added and the solution agitated to ensure good mixing.

TABLE 4 Solution parameters for five VES fluids for viscosity measurements Water VES Fluid (mL) (mL) NaBrO₃ (g) NH₄X (g) X⁻ 1 65 6 4.0 1.93 acetate 2 65 6 4.0 1.58 formate 3 65 6 4.0 1.33 chloride 4 65 6 4.0 2.45 bromide 5 65 6 4.0 2.83 MSA

FIG. 22 is a plot 2200 of viscosity (cP) over time (minutes) for the five fluids given in Table 4. The curves 2202, 2204, 2206, 2208, and 2210 in the plot 2200 are for the fluid samples 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively. The curve 2212 is temperature (° F.).

Example 10

Drilling mud (drilling fluid) was prepared according to the following procedure. A mixer was used to combine 8 g KCl, 0.2 g NaOH, 0.2 g Na₂CO₃, and 6 g hydroxyethyl cellulose. After mixing for 5 minutes, 1 g xanthan gum was added and mixed another minute. 0.5 g NaS₂O₃, 0.5 biocide, 20 g CaCO₃ (5 μm), and 20 g CaCO₃ (20 μm) were added and mixed another minute. Defoamer was added dropwise as needed and mixed 30 more seconds.

A volume of 35 mL of the prepared drilling mud was placed in each of the four cells of an OFITE filter press. A ceramic filter disc was added to each cell, and the cells were sealed and placed in the filter press. The cells were heated to 250° F. at 700 psig, and the bottom valve was opened to allow fluid to pass through the filters producing solid cakes composed of the slurry components. The filtrate was collected on a balance, and the results of the filter cake deposition are depicted in FIG. 23.

FIG. 23 is a plot 2300 of volume in cubic centimeters (cc) (or mL) of the filtrate collected as the filter cake was deposited versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The four curves 2302, 2304, 2306, and 2308 are for the filtrate collected as the four filter cakes were formed in the four cells, respectively. As can be seen, the four curves are close to each other.

The cells were then cooled and opened to remove the ceramic filter discs. In each cell, 50 mL of VES gel-based treatment fluids 1, 2, 3, and 4 have the formulations in Table 5 below was added to the four cells, respectively.

TABLE 5 VES gel-based treatment fluids for Example 10 Water VES Fluid (mL) (mL) NaBrO₃ (g) NH₄X (g) X⁻ 1 130 12 8.0 4.90 bromide 2 130 12 8.0 3.15 formate 3 130 12 8.0 2.65 chloride 4 130 12 8.0 3.85 acetate

The filter discs with filter cakes were placed back in the cell, and the cells were sealed and put back in the filter press. Each cell was heated to 250° F. at 700 psig, and then the bottom valve was opened to allow any filtrate to pass through. The filtrate was collected on a balance, and the results are depicted in FIG. 24. Fluid breakthrough occurred relatively quickly due to the formation of acid at this temperature. FIG. 24 is a plot 2400 of volume (cc) of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cakes versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The three curves 2402, 2404, and 2406 are for the treatments of the second, third, and fourth already-deposited filter cakes (deposited as indicated by 2304, 2306, and 2308 of FIG. 23) with fluids 2, 3, and 4 of Table 4, respectively.

Example 11

Example 11 is directed to filter cake permeability enhancement. Drilling mud was prepared according to the following procedure. A mixer was used to combine 8 g KCl, 0.2 g NaOH, 0.2 g Na₂CO₃, and 6 g hydroxyethyl cellulose. After mixing for 5 minutes, 1 g xanthan gum was added and mixed another minute. Then, 0.5 g NaS₂O₃, 0.5 biocide, 20 g CaCO₃ (5 μm), and 20 g CaCO₃ (20 μm) were added and mixed another minute. Defoamer was added dropwise as needed and mixed 30 more seconds.

A volume of 75 mL of the prepared drilling mud were placed in each of the four cells of an OFITE filter press. A ceramic filter disc was added to each cell, and the cells were sealed and placed in the filter press. The cells were heated to 200° F. at 700 psig, and the bottom valve was opened to allow fluid to pass through the filters producing solid cakes composed of the slurry components. The filtrate was collected on a balance, and the results of the filter cake deposition are depicted in FIG. 25. Each filter cake was deposited for different lengths of time in order to form variable thicknesses. Again, results are given in FIG. 25. FIG. 25 is a plot 2500 of volume (cc) of the filtrate collected as the filter cake was deposited versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The four curves 2502, 2504, 2506, and 2508 are for the filtrate collected as the four filter cakes were formed in the four cells, respectively. The curve 2502 is for 10 mL filtrate and then the deposition stopped. Curve 2504 is for 20 mL filtrate collected and then the deposition of that filter cake stopped. Curve 2506 is for 50 mL filtrate collected and then the deposition of that filter cake stopped. Curve 2508 is also for 50 mL filtrate collected and then the deposition of that filter cake stopped.

The cells were cooled and opened to remove the ceramic filter discs. In each cell, 50 mL of VES gel containing 8.0 g NaBrO₃, 3.15 g ammonium formate, 130 mL water, and 12 mL Armovis-EHS were added. The filter discs with filter cakes were placed back in the cell, and the cells were sealed and put back in the filter press. Each cell was heated to 200° F. at 700 psig, and then the bottom valve was opened to allow filtrate to pass through. The filtrate was collected on a balance, and the results are depicted in FIG. 26. FIG. 26 is a plot 2600 of volume (cc) of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cake versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The four curves 2602, 2604, 2606, and 2608 are respectively for the treatments of the filter cakes that were deposited at 10 mL filtrate, 20 mL filtrate, 50 mL filtrate-1, and 50 mL filtrate-2 as discussed with respect to FIG. 25.

Example 12

Example 12 is directed to filter cake permeability enhancement. Drilling mud was prepared according to the following procedure. A mixer was used to combine 8 g KCl, 0.2 g NaOH, 0.2 g Na₂CO₃, and 6 g hydroxyethyl cellulose. After mixing for 5 minutes, 1 g xanthan gum was added and mixed another minute. 0.5 g NaS₂O₃, 0.5 biocide, 20 g CaCO₃ (5 μm), and 20 g CaCO₃ (20 μm) were added and mixed another minute. Defoamer was added dropwise as needed and mixed 30 more seconds.

Variable quantities of drilling mud were placed in each of the four cells, respectively, of an OFITE filter press in order to form variable thicknesses of filter cake. The quantities of drilling mud were 20 mL (cell 1), 35 mL (cell 2), 55 mL (cell 3), 75 mL (cell 4). A ceramic filter disc was added to each cell, and the cells were sealed and placed in the filter press. The cells were heated to 200° F. at 700 psig, and the bottom valve was opened to allow fluid to pass through the filters producing solid cakes composed of the slurry components. The filtrate was collected on a balance, and the results of the filter cake deposition are depicted in FIG. 27.

FIG. 27 is a plot 2700 of volume (cc) of the filtrate collected as the filter cake was deposited versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The four curves 2702, 2704, 2706, and 2708 are for the filtrate collected as the four filter cakes were formed in the four cells, respectively. The curve 2702 is for 20 mL of drilling mud used in cell 1. Curve 2704 is for 35 mL drilling mud used in cell 2. Curve 2706 is for 55 mL drilling mud used in cell 3. Curve 2708 is for 75 mL filtrate used in cell 4.

To each of the four cells, 50 mL of VES gel containing 8.0 g NaBrO₃, 3.15 g ammonium formate, 130 mL water, and 12 mL Armovis-EHS were added via a pump. The bottom valve was opened to allow filtrate to pass through. The filtrate was collected on a balance, and the results are plotted in FIG. 28. FIG. 28 is a plot 2800 of volume (cc) of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cake versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The four curves 2802, 2804, 2806, and 2808 are respectively for the treatments of the filter cakes that were deposited at 120 mL drilling mud (cell 1), 35 mL drilling mud (cell 2), 55 mL drilling mud (cell 3), and 75 mL drilling mud (cell 4) as discussed with respect to FIG. 27.

Example 13

Example 13 is directed to filter cake permeability enhancement. Drilling mud was prepared according to the following procedure. A mixer was used to combine 8 g KCl, 0.2 g NaOH, 0.2 g Na₂CO₃, and 6 g hydroxyethyl cellulose. After mixing for 5 minutes, 1 g xanthan gum was added and mixed another minute. Then, 0.5 g NaS₂O₃, 0.5 biocide, 20 g CaCO₃ (5 μm), and 20 g CaCO₃ (20 μm) were added and mixed another minute. Defoamer was added dropwise as needed and mixed 30 more seconds.

To each of the four cells of an OFITE filter press, 35 mL of the drilling mud was added. A ceramic filter disc was added to each cell, and the cells were sealed and placed in the filter press. The cells were heated to 200° F. at 700 psig, and the bottom valve was opened to allow fluid to pass through the filters producing solid cakes composed of the slurry components. The filtrate was collected on a balance. The results of the filter cake deposition are given in FIG. 29. FIG. 29 is a plot 2900 of volume (cc) of the filtrate collected as the filter cake was deposited versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The four curves 2902, 2904, 2906, and 2908 are for the filtrate collected as the four filter cakes were formed in the four cells, respectively.

To each of the four cells, 50 mL of VES fluid was then added via pump. The formulations for each of the fluids were varied by adding nonoxidizing salts—either LiBr or CaBr₂. The formulations of the four VES fluids tested are given in Table 6.

TABLE 6 VES treatment fluids for Example 13 Water VES Salt NaBrO₃ NH₄X Fluid (mL) (mL) Salt (g) (g) (g) X⁻ 1 130 12 LiBr 3.47 6.0 3.15 formate 2 130 12 CaBr₂ 5.33 6.0 3.15 formate 3 130 12 LiBr 1.15 6.0 3.15 formate 4 130 12 CaBr₂ 1.77 6.0 3.15 formate

The bottom valve was opened to allow filtrate to pass through. The filtrate was collected on a balance. The results are given in FIG. 30. FIG. 30 is a plot 3000 of volume (cc) of the filtrate breakthrough collected through the already-deposited filter cake versus time given in time notation 00:00:00 of hour, minutes, and seconds. The curve 3002 is for treatment of the filter cake in cell 1 with the fluid 1. Curve 3004 is for the treatment of the filter cake in cell 2 with the fluid 2. Curve 3006 is for the treatment of the filter cake in cell 3 with the fluid 3. Curve 3008 is for the treatment of the filter cake in cell 4 with the fluid 4.

Example 14

Example 14 is directed to in situ acid generation experiments utilizing delay agents. In the experiments, an aqueous-based salt solution was prepared in a 120 mL transparent Ace Glass pressure tube by combining NH₄X, NaBrO₃ and DI-H₂O (25 mL). Here, X is methanesulfonate (MS) or chloride (Cl). Each colorless solution was sealed and heated in a pre-heated recirculating silicone oil bath at 150° C. under ambient pressure conditions. The induction period leading to acid generation was carefully monitored via visual inspection as evident by a change in the solution from colorless to orange. This is a signature for the evolution of bromine (Br₂) gas, a side-product of this reaction. All solutions were cooled to room temperature and acid-base titration measurements performed to determine the resultant acid concentration (mmol). Furthermore, a series of alkali salts (up to 50 mmol LiCl or LiBr) were independently added to the aforementioned ammonium-based systems and the induction times and acid concentration compared to the baseline system. The addition of LiBr to either the NH₄Cl or NH₄MS system caused a significant increase in the induction time, thus delaying acid generation. LiCl, however, did not exhibit this effect but rather showed a decrease in the induction time.

FIGS. 31 and 32 are plots showing the results of combining 10 mmol NH₄Cl, 5 mmol NaBrO₃, and either LiCl or LiBr, respectively. Without LiCl or LiBr, the induction time for acid generation is 10 minutes. FIG. 31 is a plot of induction time 3100 (minutes) versus concentration of LiBr (mmol). The smaller dots 3100 are induction time. The larger dots 3102 are concentration of hydrogen ions H+. FIG. 32 is a plot of induction time 3200 (minutes) versus concentration of LiCl (mmol). The smaller dots 3200 are induction time. The larger dots 3202 are concentration of hydrogen ions H+.

FIGS. 33 and 34 are plots showing the results of combining 10 mmol NH₄MS, 5 mmol NaBrO₃, and either LiCl or LiBr, respectively. Without LiCl or LiBr, the induction time for acid generation is 45 minutes. FIG. 33 is a plot of induction time 3300 (minutes) versus concentration of LiBr (mmol). The smaller dots 3300 are induction time. The larger dots 3302 are concentration of hydrogen ions H+. FIG. 33 is a plot of induction time 3300 (minutes) versus concentration of LiCl (mmol). The smaller dots 3300 are induction time. The larger dots 3302 are concentration of hydrogen ions H+.

An embodiment is a method of treating a wellbore for filter cake removal, including providing a reactive treatment fluid having VES into a wellbore in a subterranean formation to attack filter cake in the wellbore, and attacking (e.g., degrading, dissolving, removing, etc.) the filter cake via the reactive treatment fluid. The filter cake may be formed from solids in drilling fluid. The method may include removing at least a portion of the filter cake from the wellbore via the attacking of the filter cake with the reactive treatment fluid. The reactive treatment fluid have a reactive breaker including an oxidizing salt. In some implementations, the oxidizing salt is at a concentration of at least 22 wt % in the reactive treatment fluid. The filter cake may include polymer, and wherein the reactive breaker breaks the polymer. In certain implementations, the oxidizing salt is at a concentration in the reactive treatment fluid in excess of that needed to break the polymer in the filter cake. The reactive treatment fluid may be a VES gel, wherein gelling performance of the VES gel promotes retention of the oxidizing salt in the reactive treatment fluid for breaking the polymer in the filter cake at an end portion of a lateral of a horizontal portion of the wellbore.

The reactive treatment fluid (e.g., VES gel) may include an acid-generating material to facilitate attacking the filter cake in the wellbore, wherein attacking the filter cake involves forming acid from the acid-generating material and attacking the filter cake with the acid, and wherein forming the acid may lower viscosity of the VES gel. The filter cake may include a weighting agent from a drilling fluid, and wherein attacking the filter cake involves dissolving the weighting agent via the acid. The weighting agent may be, for example, calcium carbonate, barite, bentonite, ilmenite, or manganese tetroxide, or any combinations thereof. Forming the acid may involve releasing the acid from the acid-generating material. In some implementations, the acid is hydrochloric acid. The forming of the acid may involve releasing hydrogen ions or hydrogen chloride from the acid-generating material. In implementations, the acid-generating material is neutral in the reactive treatment fluid at Earth surface prior to providing the reactive treatment fluid into the wellbore. The forming of the acid may involve forming the acid from the acid-generating material via heat from the subterranean formation. The forming of the acid may involve releasing the acid from the acid-generating material, wherein the acid-generating material includes solid particles that degrade in the wellbore due to temperature of the subterranean formation to release the acid, and wherein particle size of the solid particles may be in a range, for example, of 20 microns to 2 mm. The acid-generating material including the solid particles may be, for example, PLA, PGA, an orthoester, or polyanhydride, or any combinations thereof. The acid-generating material may be an ester (e.g., of a carboxylic acid), and wherein forming the acid comprises hydrolyzing the ester to generate the acid. The acid-generating material may be a combination of ammonium salt and an oxidizing salt (e.g., including bromate), and wherein forming the acid comprises oxidizing ammonium of the ammonium salt with the oxidizing salt.

The reactive treatment fluid may include an inverting surfactant encapsulated in an encapsulating material that degrades at temperature of the wellbore or subterranean formation, and wherein the filter cake includes an oil-based filter cake formed from oil-based drilling fluid. The method may include degrading the encapsulating material to release the inverting surfactant, and inverting the oil-based filter cake with the inverting surfactant, wherein the inverting surfactant may have a hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of at least 12.

Another embodiment is a reactive treatment fluid (e.g., VES gel) for removing filter cake from a wellbore in a subterranean formation. The reactive treatment fluid has a reactive breaker including an oxidizing salt to break polymer in the filter cake. The reactive treatment fluid may have the oxidizing salt, for example, at a concentration of at least 22 wt % in certain implementations. In implementations, the oxidizing salt does generally does not break the VES gel. The reactive treatment fluid includes VES to gel the reactive treatment fluid to give the reactive treatment fluid as a VES gel (e.g., for retention of the oxidizing salt for breaking the polymer in the filter cake at an end portion of a lateral of the wellbore). The reactive treatment fluid includes an acid-generating material to form acid (e.g., hydrochloric acid) via heat from the subterranean formation to attack weighting agent from drilling fluid in the filter cake, wherein the acid lowers viscosity of the VES gel and may dissolve the weighting agent in the filter cake. In certain implementations, the acid-generating material may include degradable solid particles (e.g., particle size in range of 20 μm to 2 mm) that degrade in the wellbore due to temperature of the subterranean formation or wellbore to form the acid. The acid-generating material including the solid particles may be, for example, PLA, PGA, an orthoester, or polyanhydride, or any combinations thereof. The acid-generating material may be an ester (e.g., of a carboxylic acid) that hydrolyzes to form the acid. The acid-generating material may be a combination of ammonium salt and a second oxidizing salt (e.g., bromate), and wherein ammonium of the ammonium salt is oxidized by the second oxidizing salt to form the acid. The acid-generating material may be neutral in the reactive treatment fluid at Earth surface prior to introduction of the reactive treatment fluid into the wellbore. Lastly, the reactive treatment fluid may include an inverting surfactant encapsulated in an encapsulating material that degrades at temperature of the subterranean formation or wellbore, and wherein the filter cake includes an oil-based filter cake formed from oil-based drilling fluid. In those implementations, the inverting surfactant may invert the oil-based filter cake, wherein the inverting surfactant may have an HLB of at least 12.

Below is a discussion of ammonium salts that may be employed in the aforementioned third technique to generate acid in situ in which ammonium salt(s) are added to the reactive treatment fluid whereby oxidizing salt (such as bromate salts) in the reactive treatment fluid can oxidize ammonium to generate hydrogen ions and acid. In this context, the ammonium salts described below may be sources of hydrogen ions for generating acids. The ammonium salt may be or includes an ammonium halide. The ammonium halide may be or include, for example, ammonium fluoride, ammonium chloride, ammonium bromide, ammonium iodide, and mixtures thereof. The ammonium salt can be or include ammonium fluoride, hydrogen difluoride, ammonium chloride, etc. The ammonium salt can include an anion that is also an oxidizing agent. For instance, in some embodiments, an ammonium salt includes ammonium persulfate. In some implementations, the ammonium salt includes a polyatomic anion such as sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, thiosulfate, nitrite, nitrate, phosphite, phosphate, monohydrogen phosphate, dihydrogen phosphate, carbonate, and combinations thereof. Other such polyatomic anions are known to those of skill in the chemical arts. For example, as described in Wade, L. G. Jr. (2005) Organic Chemistry (6th Edition) Prentice Hall. In some embodiments, an ammonium salt includes an oxidation-resistant anion. A person of skilled in the art would understand what ammonium salts are useful or desired for reaction with a particular oxidizing agent depending on the strength of the acid desired. In some embodiments, an ammonium salt is an N-substituted ammonium salt, which may be mono-substituted or di-substituted, for instance with one or two alkyl groups, or is tri-substituted, for instance with three alkyl groups. Exemplary alkyl groups include methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, and the like. In some embodiments, an ammonium salt is not a tri-substituted ammonium salt or is not a tetra-substituted ammonium salt. In some implementations, an ammonium salt is selected based on an intended application. A person of skill in the art, looking to prepare described compositions, will appreciate that various ammonium salts are beneficial for use in delivering certain acids applicable to attacking or removing the particular filter-cake composition.

In implementations, the selected ammonium salts can include ammonium alkylsulfonates, ammonium arylsulfonates, ammonium alkarylsulfonates, or any combinations thereof. In some embodiments, an ammonium salt is selected from substituted and unsubstituted ammonium alkylsulfonates, ammonium arylsulfonates, and combinations thereof. In implementations, an alkyl group of an alkylsulfonate anion can be substituted with one or more of halogen, —OR, and —SR, wherein R is hydrogen or a C1-6 alkyl. In some embodiments, an ammonium salt is selected from ammonium methanesulfonate, ammonium ethanesulfonate, ammonium propanesulfonate, ammonium butanesulfonate, ammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate, ammonium perfluorobutanesulfonate, ammonium chlorobenzenesulfonate, ammonium p-iodobenzenesulfonate, ammonium benzenesulfonate, ammonium p-toluenesulfonate, ammonium camphorsulfonate, and combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, an ammonium salt is selected from ammonium methanesulfonate, ammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate, and ammonium perfluorobutanesulfonate. In embodiments, an ammonium salt may be selected based on an intended application. A person of skill in the art, looking to prepare described compositions, will appreciate that various ammonium salts are suitable for use in delivering certain acids. Encompassed in the present disclosure is the recognition that sulfonate-based ammonium salts exhibit, in some embodiments, improved control over acid generation. Such improvement is a prolonged induction time for acid generation. That is, there is an increased delay of acid generation in situ when a selected ammonium salt is a sulfonate-based ammonium salt. For instance, an intended application may be that it desirable to deliver an organic acid, for example methanesulfonic acid, to a zone of interest in a delayed fashion. For example, in some embodiments, ammonium methanesulfonate is selected as an ammonium salt. In particular embodiments an intended application may be that it desirable to generate a super acid, for example trifluoromethanesulfonic acid or triflic acid. In implementations, ammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate is selected as an ammonium salt. In some embodiments, where prolonged durations of time are needed to generate acid, a sulfonate-based ammonium salt having a higher degree of hydrophobicity can be employed. For example, in some embodiments, ammonium perfluorobutanesulfonate is selected as an ammonium salt. Lastly, in implementations, the ammonium salt may be composed of anions of formate, citrate, oxalate, ascorbate, acetate, trifluoroacetate, and other carboxylates.

A number of implementations have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of treating a wellbore for filter cake removal, comprising: providing a reactive treatment fluid comprising a viscoelastic surfactant (VES) into a wellbore in a subterranean formation to attack filter cake in the wellbore; and attacking the filter cake via the reactive treatment fluid.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein attacking the filter cake comprises degrading the filter cake.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the filter cake is formed from solids in drilling fluid, and wherein attacking the filter cake comprises dissolving at least a portion of the filter cake.
 4. The method of claim 1, comprising removing at least a portion of the filter cake from the wellbore via the attacking of the filter cake with the reactive treatment fluid.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactive treatment fluid comprises a reactive breaker comprising an oxidizing salt.
 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the filter cake comprises polymer, and wherein the reactive breaker breaks the polymer.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the reactive treatment fluid comprises a VES gel.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein gelling performance of the VES gel promotes retention of the oxidizing salt in the reactive treatment fluid for breaking the polymer in the filter cake at an end portion of a lateral of a horizontal portion of the wellbore.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactive treatment fluid comprises an acid-generating material to facilitate attacking the filter cake in the wellbore, and wherein attacking the filter cake comprises forming acid from the acid-generating material and attacking the filter cake with the acid.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the reactive treatment fluid comprises a VES gel, and wherein forming the acid lowers viscosity of the VES gel.
 11. The method of claim 9, wherein the filter cake comprises a weighting agent from a drilling fluid, and wherein attacking the filter cake comprise dissolving the weighting agent via the acid.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the weighting agent comprises calcium carbonate, bentonite, barite, ilmenite, or manganese tetroxide, or any combinations thereof.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the weighting agent comprises calcium carbonate.
 14. The method of claim 9, wherein forming the acid comprises forming the acid from the acid-generating material via heat from the subterranean formation.
 15. The method of claim 9, wherein forming the acid comprises releasing the acid from the acid-generating material, wherein the acid-generating material comprises solid particles that degrade in the wellbore due to temperature of the subterranean formation to release the acid, and wherein particle size of the solid particles is in a range of 20 microns to 2 millimeters (mm).
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the acid-generating material comprising the solid particles comprise polylactic acid (PLA), polyglycolic acid (PGA), an orthoester, or polyanhydride, or any combinations thereof.
 17. The method of claim 9, wherein the acid-generating material comprises an ester, and wherein forming the acid comprises hydrolyzing the ester to generate the acid.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the ester comprises carboxylic acid.
 19. The method of claim 9, wherein the acid-generating material comprises a combination of ammonium salt and an oxidizing salt, and wherein forming the acid comprises oxidizing ammonium of the ammonium salt with the oxidizing salt.
 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the oxidizing salt comprises bromate.
 21. The method of claim 9, wherein forming the acid comprises releasing the acid from the acid-generating material.
 22. The method of claim 9, wherein the forming the acid comprises releasing hydrogen ions (H⁺) from the acid-generating material.
 23. The method of claim 9, wherein the acid-generating material is neutral in the reactive treatment fluid at Earth surface prior to providing the reactive treatment fluid into the wellbore.
 24. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactive treatment fluid comprises an inverting surfactant encapsulated in an encapsulating material that degrades at temperature of the subterranean formation.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the filter cake comprises an oil-based filter cake formed from oil-based drilling fluid.
 26. The method of claim 25, comprising: degrading the encapsulating material to release the inverting surfactant; and inverting the oil-based filter cake with the inverting surfactant, wherein the inverting surfactant comprises an hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of at least
 12. 27. A reactive treatment fluid comprising: a reactive treatment fluid for removing filter cake from a wellbore in a subterranean formation, the reactive treatment fluid comprising: a reactive breaker comprising an oxidizing salt to break polymer in the filter cake; a viscoelastic surfactant (VES) to gel the reactive treatment fluid to give the reactive treatment fluid as a VES gel for retention of the oxidizing salt for breaking the polymer in the filter cake at an end portion of a lateral of the wellbore; an acid-generating material to form acid via heat from the subterranean formation to attack weighting agent from drilling fluid in the filter cake, wherein the acid lowers viscosity of the VES gel.
 28. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the reactive treatment fluid comprises the oxidizing salt at a concentration in excess of that to break the polymer.
 29. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the oxidizing salt does not break the VES gel.
 30. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the weighting agent comprises calcium carbonate, bentonite, barite, ilmenite, or manganese tetroxide, or any combinations thereof.
 31. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the weighting agent comprises calcium carbonate, and wherein the acid dissolves the weighting agent in the filter cake.
 32. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the acid-generating material comprises solid particles that degrade in the wellbore due to temperature of the subterranean formation to form the acid.
 33. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 32, wherein the acid-generating material comprising the solid particles comprises polylactic acid (PLA), polyglycolic acid (PGA), an orthoester, or polyanhydride, or any combinations thereof.
 34. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 32, wherein the solid particles comprise a particle size in a range of 20 microns to 2 millimeters (mm).
 35. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the acid-generating material comprises an ester that hydrolyzes to form the acid.
 36. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 35, wherein the ester comprises carboxylic acid.
 37. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the acid-generating material comprises a combination of ammonium salt and a second oxidizing salt, and wherein ammonium of the ammonium salt is oxidized by the second oxidizing salt to form the acid.
 38. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 37, wherein the second oxidizing salt comprises bromate.
 39. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 37, wherein the second oxidizing salt comprises the oxidizing salt that breaks the polymer.
 40. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the acid-generating material is neutral in the reactive treatment fluid at Earth surface prior to introduction of the reactive treatment fluid into the wellbore.
 41. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 27, wherein the reactive treatment fluid comprises an inverting surfactant encapsulated in an encapsulating material that degrades at temperature of the subterranean formation, and wherein the filter cake comprises an oil-based filter cake formed from oil-based drilling fluid.
 42. The reactive treatment fluid of claim 41, wherein the inverting surfactant inverts the oil-based filter cake, and wherein the inverting surfactant comprises an hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of at least
 12. 